CONTENTS PREFACE ... xv PART ONE INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION : DEFINITION AND HISTORY ... 1 What Is Industrial / Organizational Psychology? ... 2 The Science and Practice of Industrial / Organizational Psychology ... 3 The Roots and Early History of Industrial / Organizational Psychology ... 7 The Beginnings ... 7 World War I and the 1920s ... 9 The Great Depression Years and World War Ⅱ ... 9 The Postwar Years and the Modem Era ... 11 Industrial / Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future ... 12 Summary ... 17 CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH METHODS IN INDUSTRIAL / ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ... 19 Social Scientific Research Methods ... 21 Goals of Social Scientific Research Methods ... 21 Stepts in the Research Process ... 22 Major Research Designs ... 27 The Experimental Methods ... 27 The Correlational Methods ... 31 Meta-analysis ... 33 The Case Study Methods ... 34 Measurement of Variables ... 35 Observational Techniques ... 35 Self-report Techniques ... 36 Measuring Work Outcomes : The Bottom Line ... 37 Interpreting and Using Research Results ... 39 Summary ... 43 APPENDIX STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF RESEARCH DATA ... 45 Descriptive Statistics ... 46 Inferential Statistics ... 48 Statistical Analysis of Experimental Method Data ... 50 Statistical Analysis of Correlational Methods Data ... 51 Appendix Summary ... 53 PART TWO PERSONNEL ISSUES CHAPTER THREE JOB ANALYSIS ... 55 Job Analysis ... 56 Job Analysis Methods ... 61 Specific Job Analysis Techniques ... 64 Job Elements Method ... 65 Functional Job Analysis (FJA) ... 65 Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) ... 67 Critical Incidents Technique (CIT) ... 70 Comparing The Different Job Analysis Techniques ... 71 Job Analysis and the ADA ... 72 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth ... 73 Summary ... 78 CHAPTER FOUR EMPLOYEE SELECTION ... 80 A Model for Employee Selection ... 82 Steps in the Employee Selection Process ... 82 Employee Recruitment ... 82 Employee Screening ... 86 Evaluation of Written Materials ... 86 References and Letter of Recommendation ... 88 Employment Testing ... 89 Considerations in the Development and Use of Personnel Screening and Testing Methods ... 89 Types of Employee Screening Tests ... 91 Biodata Instruments ... 94 The Effectiveness of Employee Screening Tests ... 103 Assessment Centers ... 104 Hiring Interviews ... 107 Employee Selection and Placement ... 112 Making Employee Selection Decisions ... 112 Employee Placement ... 114 Equal Employment Opportunity in Employee Selection and Placement ... 116 Testing Disabled Job Applicants ... 117 Summary ... 117 CHAPTER FIVE EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ... 122 Areas of Employee Training ... 123 Fundamental Issue in Employee Training ... 126 Theories of Learning ... 126 Key Issues in the Success of Training Programs ... 129 Common Problems in Employee Training Programs ... 131 A Model for Successful Training Programs ... 132 Assessing Training Needs ... 133 Establishing Training Objectives ... 135 Development and Testing of Training Materials : Employee Training Methods ... 135 Implementation of the Training Program ... 145 Evaluation of the Training Program ... 146 Diversity and Equal Employment Opportunity Issues in Employee Training ... 149 Summary ... 151 CHAPTER SIX EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE ... 155 Job Performance and Performance Appraisala ... 156 Purpose of Performance Appraisals ... 156 The Measurement of Job Performance ... 157 Objective versus Subjective Performance Criteria ... 159 Sources of Performance Ratings ... 161 Methods of Rating Performance ... 164 Comparative methods ... 165 Individual methods ... 166 Problems and Pitfalls in Performance Appraisal ... 172 The performance Appraisal Process ... 176 Legal Concerns inPerformance Appraisals ... 180 Summary ... 180 PART THREE WORKER ISSUES CHAPTER SEVEN MOTIVATION ... 183 Defining Motivation ... 184 Need Theories of Motivation ... 185 Basic Need Theories ... 185 McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory ... 186 Behavior-based Theories of Motivation ... 190 Reinfocement Theory ... 190 Goal-setting Theory ... 194 Job Design Theories of Motivation ... 195 Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory ... 195 Job Characteristics Model ... 197 Rational Theories of motivation ... 202 Equity Theory of motivation ... 202 Expectancy Theory of Motvation ... 204 Comparing, Contrasting, and Combining the Different MotivationTheories ... 207 The Relationship Between Motivation and Performance ... 210 Systems and Technology Variables ... 211 Individual Difference Variables ... 211 Group Dynamics Variables ... 212 Organizational Variables ... 212 Summary ... 213 CHAPTER EIGHT JOB SATISFACTION, WORK ATTENDANCE, AND QUALITY OF WORK LIFE ... 215 Job Satisfaction ... 216 Definong Job Satisfaction ... 216 The Measurement of Job Satisfaction ... 218 Job Satisfaction and Job Performance ... 225 Organizational Commitment ... 227 Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction ... 227 Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Employee Attendance ... 230 Employee Absenteeism ... 230 Employee Turnover ... 230 Increasing Job Satisfaction ... 233 Quality of Work Life ... 240 Summary ... 243 CHAPTER NINE WORKER STRESS ... 245 Defining Worker Stress ... 246 Sources of Worker Stress ... 248 Stressful Occupations ... 248 Organizational Sources of Work Stress : Situational Stressors ... 250 Individual Sources of Work Stress : Dispositional Stressors ... 254 Measurement of Worker Stress ... 260 Effects of Worker Stress ... 260 Job Burnout ... 262 Coping with Worker Stress ... 264 Summary ... 271 PART FOUR WORK GROUP AND ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES CHAPTER TEN COMMUNICATION IN THE WORK PLACE ... 273 The Communication Process : A Definition and a Model ... 274 Research on the Communication Process ... 278 Nonverbal Communication in Work Setting ... 283 The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations ... 285 Downward, Upward, and Lateral Flow of Communication ... 286 Barriers to the Effective Flow of Communication ... 289 Communication Networks ... 293 Formal and Informal Lines of Communication : The Hierarchy Versus the Grapevine ... 296 Organizational Communication and Work Outcomes ... 299 Summary ... 301 CHAPTER ELEVEN GROUP PROCESSES IN WORK ORGANIZATIONS ... 303 Defining Work Groups ... 304 Roles ... 305 Norms ... 308 Organizational Socialization : Learning Group Roles and Norms ... 309 Basic Group Processes ... 301 Conformity ... 310 Group Cohesiveness ... 311 Cooperation and Competition in Work Groups ... 313 Conflict in Work Groups and Organizations ... 318 Group Decision-making Processes ... 328 Effectiveness of Group Decision Making ... 329 Group Decision Making Gone Awry : Groupthink and Group Polarization ... 331 Summary ... 336 CHAPTER TWELVE LEADERSHIP ... 339 What Is Leadership? ... 340 Defining Leadership ... 340 Universalist Theories of Leadership ... 341 Great Man / Woman Theory ... 341 Trait Theory ... 342 Behavioral Theories od Leadership ... 342 Ohio State Leadership Studies ... 343 University of Michigan Leadership Studies ... 344 Evaluation of the Behavioral Theories of Leadership ... 345 Contingency Theories of Leadership ... 347 Fiedler's Contingency Model ... 347 The Path-Goal Theory ... 353 The Decision-making Model ... 354 The Leader-Member Exchange Model ... 359 Additional Leadership Theories ... 360 Charismatic Leadership Theory ... 361 Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership ... 362 Comparing and Contrasting Theories of Leadership ... 363 Applications of Leadership Theories ... 365 Leadership Training ... 367 Job Redesign and Substitutes for Leadership ... 369 Summary ... 370 CHAPTER THIRTEEN INFLUENCE, POWER, AND POLITICS ... 372 Defining Influence, Power, and Politics ... 374 Influence : The Use of Social Control ... 375 Power : A Major Force in Work Organizations ... 377 Power Sources ... 379 Power Dynamics in Work Organizations ... 382 Organizational Polities ... 388 Defining Organizational Politics ... 389 Types of Political Behaviors ... 390 Causes of Organizational Politics ... 394 Consequences of Organizational Politics ... 397 Managing Organizational Politics ... 397 A Contingency Approach to Organizational Power and Politics ... 398 Summary ... 400 CHAPTER FOURTEEN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, CULTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT ... 402 Organizational Structure ... 404 Dimendions of Organizational Structure ... 404 Traditional versus Nontraditional Organizational Structures ... 404 Chain of Command and Span of Control ... 405 Functional Versus Divisional Structures ... 407 Centralized Versus Decentralized Structure ... 409 Examples of Traditional and Nontraditional Organizational Structures ... 410 Traditional Organizational Structures ... 410 Nontraditional Organizational Structures ... 413 Contingency Models of Organizational Structure ... 416 Organizational Culture ... 422 Organizational Development ... 423 Organizational Development Techniques ... 426 The Effectiveness of Organizational Development ... 435 Summary ... 437 PART FIVE WORK ENVIRONMENT ISSUES CHAPTER FIFTEEN HUMAN FACTORS IN WORK DESIGN ... 439 Human Factors ... 440 Operator-Machine Systems ... 444 Displays ... 444 Operactor Information Peocessing and Decision Making ... 448 Machine Controls ... 449 Errors in Operator-Machine Systems ... 458 Automation and Operator-Machine Systems ... 460 The Work Environment : Workspace Design ... 463 Summary ... 466 CHAPTER SIXTEEN WORK CONDITIONS AND WORK SAFETY ... 469 Work Conditions ... 470 Physical Conditions of the Work Environment ... 470 Psychological Conditions of the Work Environment ... 480 Temporal Conditions of the Work Environment : Work Schedules ... 482 Work Safety ... 484 Dangers in the Work Environment ... 485 Dangers in Machine Systems ... 487 Dangers in Worker Characteristics and Behavior ... 488 Programs to Increase Work Safety ... 491 Alcohol and Drug Use in the Workplace ... 494 Summary ... 496 GLOSSARY ... 499 REFERENCES ... 513 CREDITS ... 561 NAME INDEX ... 565 SUBJECT INDEX ... 578