CONTENTS Preface ... xiii CHAPTER ONE Socio-Economic Structure, Human Needs, and Mutual Responsibility ... 1 Overview ... 1 The Impact of Social and Economic Structures ... 2 Defining Social Welfare and Social Work ... 4 The American Myth of the Hero ... 5 New Forms of Blaming the Victim ... 8 The Authors' Perspective ... 10 Summary ... 13 Questions for Consideration ... 13 Notes ... 14 CHAPTER TWO Social Values and Social Welfare ... 16 Overview ... 16 Modem Views of Humanity ... 17 Self-Actualization versus Irritation Response Theories ... 18 Economics and Human Motivation ... 19 An Overview of History ... 20 Altruism and Mutual Aid ... 20 Ancient Cultures ... 22 Egypt ... 22 Sumer and Babylonia ... 23 Hebrew and Judaic Societies ... 24 Greece and Rome ... 26 Christianity ... 27 Byzantium : Christianity in the East ... 28 Holy Poverty and Expectations of the Wealthy ... 29 Eastern Cultures ... 30 China ... 30 India ... 32 Islam ... 33 Summary : Evolving Values and Social Welfare ... 33 Questions for Consideration ... 34 Notes ... 34 CHAPTER THREE Social Values and Social Welfare : England from the Middle Ages Onward ... 37 Overview ... 37 The Early Middle Ages ... 37 The Middle Middle Ages ... 39 The Late Middle Ages to Elizabethan Poor Laws ... 40 Work and Religion ... 44 The Poor Laws ... 48 The Poor Law Compilation of 1601 ... 49 Speenhamland ... 51 The Workhouse ... 53 The Poor Law of 1834 ... 54 Principles of the Poor Laws ... 55 Summary ... 57 Questions for Consideration ... 58 Notes ... 58 CHAPTER FOUR Social Values and Social Welfare : The American Experience Ⅰ ... 61 Overview ... 61 American Poor Law Mentality ... 61 Settlements, Labor, and Imported 'Poor Laws' ... 62 The Early Spanish Influence, the Mexicans, and Other Latinos ... 65 Voluntary Mutual Aid Efforts ... 67 Mutual Aid among African Americans ... 67 The American Frontier : The Myth and Values ... 71 Native Americans and U.S. History ... 73 The Federal Role in Social Welfare ... 76 The Freedmen's Bureau ... 77 Veterans and a Suspension of the Ethic ... 79 Social Darwinism ... 80 The Coming of Social Insurance ... 81 Society, Social Values, and Modern Views of Human Nature ... 82 Summary ... 83 Questions for Consideration ... 84 Notes ... 84 CHAPTER FIVE America, Poverty, Two Paths : The American Experience Ⅱ ... 88 Three Discoveries of Poverty ... 88 First Discovery ... 89 The Fading of the First Discovery ... 90 Second Discovery ... 90 Third Discovery ... 91 The War on Poverty ... 94 Expectation and Delivery ... 95 The 'Skirmish' against Poverty ... 96 Families, Children, and Poverty ... 98 Aid to Families with Dependent Children ('Welfare') ... 98 An Old-New Path ... 102 Temporary Assistance to Needy Families ... 104 Social Security ... 105 Contrasting Values and Aims ... 106 The Poor Laws Today ... 106 Human Nature and the American Dream ... 108 Summary ... 109 Questions for Consideration ... 109 Notes ... 109 CHAPTER SIX Concepts for Social Welfare ... 111 Overview ... 111 What Is Social Welfare? ... 111 Social Policy, Social Services, and Social Work ... 114 Social Policy ... 114 Social Services ... 114 Social Work ... 115 Ideology, Social Policy, and Government Intervention ... 115 The Federal and Pluralist System ... 121 The Economic Sphere ... 122 The Importance of Fiscal and Monetary Policy ... 126 An International Economy ... 128 A Second Welfare System - Corporate Welfare ... 129 A Changed World-New/Old Ideology, New Politics, New Economic Forces, New Social Policy, and New Social Services ... 130 A Changed Context ... 132 Summary ... 134 Questions for Consideration ... 134 Notes ... 134 CHAPTER SEVEN Examining a Social Welfare Program : Structural Components, Alternative Program Characteristics, and Evaluation ... 136 Overview ... 136 Structural Components ... 137 What Are the Needs and Goals to Be Met? ... 137 What Is the Form of Benefit That the Program Produces? ... 138 Who Is Eligible for the Program? ... 138 How Is the Program Financed? ... 139 What Is the Level of Administration? ... 141 Alternative Program Characteristics ... 142 Residual, Institutional, Developmental, or Socio-Economic Development ... 142 Selective or Universal ... 145 Benefits in Money, Services, or Utilities ... 149 Public or Private ... 151 Central or Local ... 151 Lay or Professional ... 153 Evaluating the Program ... 153 Adequacy ... 154 Financing ... 154 Coherence ... 157 Latent Consequences ... 157 Summary ... 158 Questions for Consideration ... 158 Notes ... 158 CHAPTER EIGHT The Welfare Society and Its Clients ... 160 Overview ... 160 Who Is a Client of Social Welfare? ... 160 What Is Poverty? ... 162 Absolute Poverty ... 162 Relative Poverty ... 165 Subjective Poverty ... 166 A Description of the Poor ... 166 Income and Wealth Inequality ... 172 The Effect of Some Government Programs ... 174 The Near-Poor and Expectations ... 176 Other Views of Poverty ... 177 Relative Inequality ... 178 Lack of Power, Access, and Inclusion ... 179 The Underclass/Culture of Poverty Thesis ... 180 Strategies for Fighting Poverty ... 181 Social Utilities ... 181 Investment in Human Capital ... 182 Income Transfers ... 183 Rehabilitation ... 183 Aggregative and Selective Economic Measures ... 184 Participation and Organization ... 186 Ideology Revisited ... 186 Summary ... 188 Questions for Consideration ... 189 Notes ... 189 CHAPTER NINE Current Social Welfare Programs - Economic Security ... 191 Overview ... 191 Social Insurance Programs ... 192 Social Security (OASDI) ... 192 Unemployment Compensation ... 205 Workers' Compensation ... 210 Income Support Programs ... 214 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families ... 215 Supplemental Security Income ... 222 General Assistance ... 225 Earned Income Tax Credit ... 227 Summary ... 229 Questions for Consideration ... 229 Notes ... 230 CHAPTER TEN Social Welfare Programs : Sustaining the Quality of Life ... 232 Overview ... 232 Managed Care : A Radical Change ... 232 Major Organizational Types ... 234 Impact on Services and Practitioners ... 235 Proponents ... 235 Criticisms ... 235 Research on Quality of Care ... 236 Strategies to Achieve Profits ... 236 Public Criticism and Legislation ... 237 Social Work Roles ... 238 Health Care Programs ... 239 Medicare ... 239 Medicaid ... 244 Nutrition Programs ... 250 The Food Stamp Program ... 250 Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children ... 252 School Lunch and Breakfast Programs ... 254 Low-Income Home Energy Assistance ... 255 Housing ... 256 Veterans' Benefits ... 259 Employment Programs ... 263 Personal Social Services ... 264 Services to Families ... 265 Services to Children ... 266 Title XX ... 269 Mental Health Services ... 271 Corrections ... 273 Summary ... 276 Questions for Consideration ... 276 Notes ... 276 CHAPTER ELEVEN Nonprofit and Private Social Welfare ... 279 Overview ... 279 Early Patterns ... 279 The Nonprofit Sector ... 280 Types of Nonprofit Agencies ... 281 The Proprietary Private For-Profit Organization ... 282 Services of the Nonprofit and Private Sectors ... 283 Getting and Spending ... 283 Private and Nonprofit Agencies as Social Welfare Programs ... 287 Family and Friends ... 288 A Point of View ... 290 Leadership, Class, and Gender ... 291 Private and Public Spheres ... 292 Uses of Public Funds and Power ... 292 Tax Laws and Policy ... 293 Accountability ... 294 National Policy ... 294 Marketplace and the Nonmarket Domain ... 295 The Family ... 296 Toward the Future ... 296 Summary ... 298 Questions for Consideration ... 298 Notes ... 298 CHAPTER TWELVE Social Work : The Emergence of a Profession ... 301 Overview ... 301 The Workers of 'Good Works' ... 302 The Process of Professionalization ... 307 A Brief History of Practice and Methods ... 308 Development of the Professional Association ... 312 Social Work with Groups ... 314 Community Organization and Social Planning ... 316 Toward a Unified Profession ... 318 Summary ... 319 Questions for Consideration ... 319 Notes ... 319 CHAPTER THIRTEEN Social Work : Functions, Context, and Issues ... 323 Overview ... 323 The Purposes of Social Work ... 323 The Professional within the Organizational Context ... 325 The Professional within Complex Organizations ... 325 Complex Organizations and Professional Culture ... 326 Complex Organizations and Authority ... 326 The Profession and Professional Autonomy ... 327 Alternative Roles and Settings ... 328 Society, the Functions of Social Work, and Services for People ... 328 The 'Bottom Line' ... 329 The Two Tracks of Social Work : Cause and Function ... 329 Generic-Specific Social Work ... 334 Professionals and Volunteers ... 336 The Number of Social Workers ... 337 The Impact of Managed Care ... 338 Racism, Sexism, and a Pluralistic Society ... 338 Summary ... 340 Questions for Consideration ... 340 Notes ... 340 CHAPTER FOURTEEN Social Trends Affecting Social Welfare ... 343 Overview ... 343 Growth, Demography, and Resources : International Perspectives ... 343 Growth and Demography : The United States ... 347 Population Growth ... 347 The Family ... 348 Aging ... 350 Fertility Rate ... 350 Productivity and the Service Economy ... 350 A National Society ... 352 Individual and Shared Goals ... 352 Ethnicity and Pluralism ... 353 Gender ... 355 Gays and Lesbians ... 357 The New Property ... 360 Additional Societal Issues Affecting Social Welfare ... 361 Technological Change ... 361 Crime ... 361 The Place of Social Welfare in a Changing Context ... 362 Summary ... 363 Questions for Consideration ... 363 Notes ... 363 CHAPTER FIFTEEN Alternative Programs to Meet Social Welfare Needs ... 367 Overview ... 367 Female Heads of Household, Children, and Poverty ... 368 Limitations of Current Programs ... 370 Improved Social Policy ... 371 A Set of Ideal Services ... 371 The Aging and Long-Term Home Health Care ... 373 Immigration ... 378 Implications ... 382 Persons with Disabilities ... 383 Civil Rights ... 384 Family and Medical Leave Act ... 385 Children, Learning, and Social Participation ... 386 General Social Services for Persons with Disabilities ... 387 Alternatives Facing the Practitioner ... 387 Technology and Social Action ... 389 Where We Are ... 391 Two Scenarios ... 394 Our Proposal ... 394 Summary ... 395 Questions for Consideration ... 395 Notes ... 396 APPENDIX Sources of Information ... 401 Index ... 405 About the Authors ... 415