CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 A Balanced Approach to School Counseling ... 1 Introduction ... 2 Historical Overview ... 3 Pioneers ... 3 Vocational Guidance Movement ... 4 Psychometric Movement ... 4 Mental Health Movement ... 5 Emergence of a School Guidance Profession ... 5 After the Boom ... 8 Challenges ... 9 Responding to the Challenges ... 13 A Balanced Approach ... 16 A Proposal for Achieving Balance ... 17 Managing Intervention Demands ... 18 Programming for Prevention ... 20 Going Upstream ... 23 Ingredients of a Balanced School Counseling Program ... 23 Prevention ... 23 Intervention ... 24 Prevention and Intervention ... 25 Examples of a Balanced Program : Wake County North Carolina's Essential Guidance Program and Waynesboro, Pennsylvania's Comprehensive Guidance Plan ... 26 Components of the Wake County Essential Guidance Program ... 27 Components of the Waynesboro Area School District Comprehensive Guidance Plan ... 28 Functions of a Balanced Program ... 29 Chapter 2 : Counseling and Social Action ... 29 Chapter 3 : Legal and Ethical Responsibilities ... 29 Chapter 4 : Counseling ... 29 Chapter 5 : Proactive Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 30 Chapter 6 : Consulting ... 30 Chapter 7 : Referral and Coordination ... 30 Chapter 8 : Information ... 31 Chapter 9 : Enhancing Transitions ... 31 Chapter 10 : Assessment ... 31 Chapter 11 : Accountability ... 31 Chapter 12 : Professional Identity for School Counselors ... 31 Direct and Indirect Programming ... 32 Beneficiaries of a Balanced Program ... 32 Summary ... 35 Suggested Activities ... 35 References ... 36 CHAPTER 2 School Counseling and Social Action ... 39 The Legacy of Social Action ... 40 Challenges of the New Millennium ... 41 Counseling for Social Change ... 43 The School Counselor as a Change Agent : A Case Study ... 45 Challenges Associated With Activist Counseling Strategies ... 46 Challenges That Require Social Action ... 47 Striving for Equal Opportunity ... 47 Attending to Racism Through Social Action and Multicultural Counseling ... 55 Diversity-Sensitive Counseling for Sexual Minority Youths ... 60 Activists for School Counselor Identity ... 64 Suggested Activities ... 66 References ... 67 CHAPTER 3 Legal and Ethical Responsibilities ... 73 Importance of Legal and Ethical Responsibilities in School Counseling ... 74 Legal Concepts ... 74 Governmental Regulations ... 74 Ethical Standards ... 76 Pertinent Legal Codes and Concepts ... 76 Federal Legislation 76 Legal Concepts ... 79 Ethical Responsibilities ... 87 American Counseling Association Standards ... 87 American School Counselor Association Ethical Standards ... 90 Avoiding Ethical Violations ... 90 Ethical Multicultural Counseling ... 93 Making Good Ethical Decisions ... 93 Keeping Student Records : A Merging of Legal and Ethical Codes ... 95 FERPA and Codes of Ethics ... 96 Developing a Systematic Plan for Collection, Maintenance, and Dissemination of School Records ... 96 Implementing a Record-Keeping System ... 97 Sources of Ethics Consultation ... 98 Suggested Activities ... 99 References ... 100 CHAPTER 4 Counseling ... 105 Demand for Counseling Interventions ... 106 Personal Problems ... 106 Social Problems ... 108 Basic Ingredients of Counseling Interventions ... 109 Point of View ... 109 Foundations ... 111 Developmental Perspective of the Counseling Process and of Student Clients ... 111 Basic Competencies for Counseling Interventions ... 113 Successfully Opening and Closing Counseling Interviews and Group Counseling Sessions ... 114 Providing the Core Facilitative Conditions for Counseling ... 116 Attending to Clients Physically ... 118 Attending to Clients Psychologically ... 119 Basic Verbal Counseling Responses ... 120 Challenging Skills ... 123 Basic Action Strategies ... 126 The Nature of School Counseling Interventions ... 140 Organizing the Counseling Process ... 141 Basics of Responding to Client Aversion to Counseling ... 142 Basic Termination Skills ... 144 Counseling Interventions in the Wake County Essential Guidance Program ... 145 Counseling Interventions m the Waynesboro Area Comprehensive Guidance Plan ... 145 Suggested Activities ... 146 References ... 146 CHAPTER 5 Proactive Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 151 Demand for Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 152 Developmental Curriculum Programming Having a Skills-Enhancement Focus ... 153 Developmental Curriculum Programming Having a Problem-Resolving Focus ... 154 Developmental Curriculum Programming Designed to Counter Cultural Oppression ... 154 Basic Ingredients of Developmental Curriculum Planning ... 155 Point of View ... 155 Formalizing and Specifying Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 155 Basic Competencies in Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 157 Planning ... 157 Delivering ... 159 Lesson Plan From an Anxiety Management Program ... 159 Transferring ... 163 Evaluating ... 163 Examples of Developmental Curriculum Programming ... 163 Classical Programs ... 163 Recent Programs ... 164 Teaching Coping Skills ... 165 Prejudice Prevention ... 166 Conflict Resolution ... 167 Comprehensive Developmental Guidance ... 168 Developmental Curriculum Programming in the Wake County Essential Guidance Program ... 169 Developmental Curriculum Programming in the Waynesboro Comprehensive Guidance Plan ... 170 Developmental Curriculum Programming to Achieve Prevention Goals : The Challenge ... 170 Suggested Activities ... 171 References ... 171 CHAPTER 6 Consulting ... 175 Demand for Consulting ... 176 Basic Ingredients of Consulting ... 178 Consulting Modes ... 179 Consulting Steps or Stages ... 180 Basic Consulting Competencies ... 181 Identifying and Clarifying the Problem Situations ... 182 Understanding the Situation and Setting Goals ... 184 Basic Action Strategies for Consulting ... 184 Examples of School Counseling Consultation ... 190 Consultation in the Wake County Essential Guidance Program ... 193 Consultation in the Waynesboro Comprehensive Guidance Plan ... 193 Consultation : A Natural Function for School Counselors ... 194 Suggested Activities ... 194 References ... 195 CHAPTER 7 Referral and Coordination ... 197 Demand for Referral and Coordination ... 198 Counselor-Initiated Referrals ... 198 Point of View ... 198 Foundations ... 201 Basic Competencies for Counselor-Initiated Referrals ... 201 Identifying and Clarifying ... 201 Setting Goals Based on Understanding the Problem ... 202 Implementing Constructive Action Strategies ... 203 Manifestations of the Counselor-Initiated Referral Service ... 211 The School Counselor as a Referral Service Coordinator ... 211 School Counselors and Student Assistance Programs ... 212 Referrals to Counselors ... 215 Referrals From Other Professionals and Parents ... 215 Referrals From Students ... 217 Suggested Activities ... 218 References ... 219 CHAPTER 8 Information ... 221 Demand for Information ... 222 Basic Ingredients of Information Dissemination and Processing ... 224 Understanding the Information Needs of Student Clients ... 224 Versatility ... 225 Basic Competencies in Information Disseminating and Processing ... 226 Finding and Acquiring Useful Information ... 226 Organizing, Storing, and Disseminating Information ... 226 Helping Children and Adolescents Process Information ... 236 Concluding Comments About the Information Function ... 239 Suggested Activities ... 239 References ... 240 CHAPTER 9 Enhancing Transitions ... 243 Demand for Transition Enhancements ... 244 Basic Ingredients of Enhancing Transitions ... 245 Understanding the Transition Needs of Students ... 245 Coordinating the Transition-Enhancing Activities ... 247 Basic Competencies for the Home-to-School and School-to-School Transitions ... 249 Understanding the Advantages and Disadvantages of Optional Transition Enhancement Approaches ... 249 Being Aware of the Developmental Tasks Children and Adolescents Face in Home-to-School and School-to-School Transitions ... 250 Possessing Knowledge of Specific Home-to-School and School-to-School Transition Strategies and Being Able to Implement Them ... 250 Basic Competencies in the School-to-Work Transition ... 252 Helping Students Understand the Contingencies of the School-to-Work Transition Process ... 252 Helping Students Acquire the Requisite School-to-Work Transition Skills ... 254 Making Students Aware of Useful Self-Help Resources ... 259 Communicating Successfully With Placement Personnel ... 259 Providing Comprehensive Direct Transition From School to Work ... 260 Concluding Comments About Transition Enhancement ... 262 Suggested Activities ... 263 References ... 263 CHAPTER 10 Assessment ... 267 Demand for Assessments ... 268 Basic Ingredients of the Assessment Function ... 271 Assessment for Enhancing Individual Development ... 272 Assessment for Diagnosis ... 274 External Assessment Expectations ... 275 Assessment for Classification, Placement, and Curriculum Evaluation ... 276 Leadership in Promoting Responsible Use of Tests ... 277 Basic Assessment Competencies ... 278 Knowledge About Measurement Principles ... 278 Knowledge About Standardized Tests ... 281 Knowledge About Nonstandardized Assessment Strategies ... 285 Knowledge About Managing School Testing Programs ... 287 Knowledge About Assessment Issues ... 289 Knowledge About Selecting and Administering Assessment Instruments ... 292 Knowledge About Communicating Assessment Information Accurately ... 293 Suggested Activities ... 297 References ... 297 CHAPTER 11 Accountability ... 299 Demand for Accountability ... 300 Evaluation ... 300 Accountability ... 301 Ingredients of the Accountability Function ... 303 Convenient and Efficient Evaluation ... 303 Comprehensive Accountability Data ... 304 Understandable and Informative Accountability Data ... 306 Constructive Use of Accountability Data ... 306 Basic Accountability Competencies ... 307 Assessing Consumer Needs ... 307 Assessing the Final Effects of One's Efforts : Summative Evaluation ... 309 Assessing the Intermediate Effects of One's Efforts : Formative Evaluation ... 314 Assessing Satisfaction ... 314 Assessing Cost-Effectiveness ... 317 Presenting Evaluation Data Successfully ... 319 Assembling Accountability Data. A Portfolio ... 322 A Plan for Implementing Accountability Activities ... 322 Accountability as a Means of Enhancing Public Relations ... 323 Accountability : A Special Challenge for School Counselors ... 324 An Alternative : External Reviews ... 325 Suggested Activities ... 325 References ... 326 CHAPTER 12 Professional Identity for School Counselors ... 329 Professionals With Mixed Allegiances ... 330 Ascribing Professional Status to School Counselors ... 330 Competing Professional Loyalties ... 331 Challenges to the Professional Identity of School Counselors ... 336 Dealing with Responsibility for Noncounseling Functions ... 336 Keeping Motivated ... 344 Keeping Current ... 349 Suggested Activities ... 350 References ... 350 EPILOGUE ... 353 APPENDIX A Key Components of the National Standards for School Counseling ... 355 APPENDIX B Multicultural Counseling Standards ... 361 APPENDIX C American Counseling Association Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice ... 364 APPENDIX D Ethical Standards for School Counselors―American School Counselor Association (Revised, 1992) ... 384 APPENDIX E Opinion Surveys Developed by Counselors in the State College, Pennsylvania, Area School District ... 389 APPENDIX F Erie Data Cards ... 406 AUTHOR INDEX ... 409 SUBJECT INDEX ... 415