CONTENTS Preface ... xvii PART Ⅰ MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND ITS RESPONSE TO OUR NATION'S INCREASING DIVERSITY ... 1 CHAPTER ONE : Multicultural Education ... 3 OVERVIEW ... 3 MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION FOR CULTURALLY PLURALISTIC SCHOOLS ... 3 Definition ... 3 Principles ... 4 Concepts ... 6 Goals ... 6 Assumptions ... 8 Myths and Misconceptions ... 10 A Brief Historical Overview ... 11 The Influence of Court Decisions ... 13 Interdisciplinary Approaches ... 14 THE EFFECTIVE MULTICULTURAL EDUCATOR ... 15 Challenges of Designing Multicultural Education Programs ... 16 Ethnocentrism ... 17 Developing Positive Cultural Identities ... 18 Racism ... 20 White Privilege ... 20 Stereotypes, Prejudices, and Generalizations ... 22 Myths and Realities ... 23 Understanding Learners from Culturally Different Backgrounds ... 23 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION ... 24 SUMMING UP ... 25 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 25 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 26 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 26 CHAPTER TWO : An Increasingly Multicultural Society ... 28 OVERVIEW ... 28 HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ... 29 THE CULTURALLY DIFFERENT : DEMOGRAPHICS ... 30 African Americans ... 31 American Indians ... 33 Arab Americans ... 34 Asian Americans ... 36 European Americans and Other Cultural Groups ... 38 Hispanic Americans ... 39 UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY ... 40 Culture ... 40 Race ... 41 Ethnicity ... 41 Gender ... 41 Sexual Orientation ... 43 Individual ... 44 Socioeconomic Factors ... 46 CHALLENGES IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE SOCIETY ... 46 The Cultural Deficit Model ... 47 The Cultural Mismatch Model ... 47 The Culturally Different Model ... 47 UNDERSTANDING AND REDUCING RACISM ... 49 UNDERSTANDING AND DISPELLING STEREOTYPES ... 50 HELPING LEARNERS DEVELOP POSITIVE CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 52 SUMMING UP ... 52 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 52 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 53 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 53 PART Ⅱ UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS AND THEIR CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS ... 55 CHAPTER THREE : Understanding African American Children and Adolescents ... 57 OVERVIEW ... 57 ORIGINS ... 58 AFRICAN AMERICANS TODAY ... 58 STEREOTYPING OF AFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 60 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 60 Gender ... 63 Socioeconomic Status ... 64 Families ... 67 Religion ... 68 Language ... 68 ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS ... 70 LEARNING STYLES : CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 73 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPENDING AFRICAN AMERICANS' PROGRESS ... 75 PROMOTING POSITIVE SELF-ESTEEM AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 77 SUMMING UP ... 81 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 81 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 82 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 82 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE AFRICAN AMERICAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 83 CHAPTER FOUR : Understanding American Indian Children and Adolescents ... 84 OVERVIEW ... 84 ORIGINS ... 85 AMERICAN INDIANS TODAY ... 85 STEREOTYPING OF AMERICAN INDIAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 86 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 86 Gender ... 91 Socioeconomic Status ... 92 Families ... 93 Religion ... 95 Language ... 96 ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS ... 97 LEARNING STYLES : CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 104 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPEDING AMERICAN INDIANS' PROGRESS ... 104 PROMOTING SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 106 SUMMING UP ... 107 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 108 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 108 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 109 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE AMERICAN INDIAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 109 CHAPTER FIVE : Understanding Arab American Children and Adolescents ... 111 OVERVIEW ... 111 THE ARAB AMERICAN PEOPLE ... 112 Origins ... 112 Arab Americans Today ... 114 STEREOTYPING OF ARAB AMERICAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 114 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 118 Gender ... 119 Socioeconomic Status ... 121 Families ... 122 Religion ... 123 Language ... 124 ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS ... 125 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPEDING ARAB AMERICAN PROGRESS ... 126 PROMOTING POSITIVE SELF-ESTEEM AND CULTURAL IDENTITY ... 127 SUMMING UP ... 127 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 129 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 130 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 130 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE ARAB AMERICAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 131 CHAPTER SIX : Understanding Asian American Children and Adolescents ... 133 OVERVIEW ... 133 ORIGINS ... 134 ASIAN AMERICANS TODAY ... 135 STEREOTYPING OF ASIAN AMERICAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 135 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 137 Gender ... 140 Socioeconomic Status ... 140 Families ... 141 Religion ... 143 Language ... 143 ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS ... 146 LEARNING STYLES : CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 149 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPEDING ASIAN AMERICANS' PROGRESS ... 149 PROMOTING SELF-ESTEEM AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 151 SUMMING UP ... 154 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 154 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 155 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 155 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE ASIAN AMERICAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 156 CHAPTER SEVEN : Understanding European American Children and Adolescents ... 157 OVERVIEW ... 157 ORIGINS ... 157 EUROPEAN AMERICANS TODAY ... 161 STEREOTYPING OF EUROPEAN AMERICAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 162 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 163 Gender ... 166 Socioeconomic Status ... 166 Families ... 166 Religion ... 169 Language ... 170 LEARNING STYLES : CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 173 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPEDING EUROPEAN AMERICANS' PROGRESS ... 174 PROMOTING SELF-ESTEEM AND CULTURAL IDENTITY ... 175 SUMMING UP ... 176 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 177 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 177 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 178 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE EUROPEAN AMERICAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 179 CHAPTER EIGHT : Understanding Hispanic American Children and Adolescents ... 180 OVERVIEW ... 180 ORIGINS ... 180 HISPANIC AMERICANS TODAY ... 181 STEREOTYPING OF HISPANIC AMERICAN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 182 CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ... 184 Gender ... 186 Socioeconomic Status ... 186 Families ... 188 Religion ... 190 Language ... 190 ACHIEVEMENT LEVELS ... 193 LEARNING STYLES : CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 196 SCHOOL PRACTICES IMPEDING HISPANIC AMERICANS' PROGRESS ... 199 PROMOTING SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 201 SUMMING UP ... 203 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 203 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 204 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 204 EXPANDING YOUR STUDENTS' HORIZONS : APPROPRIATE HISPANIC AMERICAN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ... 205 PART Ⅲ TEACHING AND LEARNING IN A DIVERSE SOCIETY ... 207 CHAPTER NINE : Curricular Efforts ... 209 OVERVIEW ... 209 TOWARD CULTURAL DIVERSITY ... 210 THE ILLUSION OF CHANGE AND PROGRESS ... 211 The Continuing Need for Change in Educational Practices ... 212 FROM ILLUSION TO REALITY : RESPONDING TO RACISM, DISCRIMINATION, ETHNOCENTRISM, AND STEREOTYPES ... 213 PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING A MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM ... 214 The Total School Environment ... 214 Reform Efforts ... 214 Guidelines for Developing Multicultural Curricula ... 215 The Hidden Curriculum ... 217 GUIDELINES FOR A MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUM ... 218 Assessing the Need for Curricular Change ... 219 Selecting Bias-Free Curricular and Teaching and Learning Materials ... 220 Evaluating Curricular Efforts ... 222 A MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION UNIT ... 225 Considerations ... 225 Example ... 225 THE UNIT : UNJUST TREATMENT OF PEOPLE OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS ... 225 Rational ... 225 Objectives and Activities ... 225 Language Arts ... 226 Mathematics ... 226 Science ... 226 Social Studies ... 227 Art ... 227 Music ... 227 Other Resources ... 228 Other Topics for Multicultural Units ... 229 EXTENDING THE MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM ... 230 Parental and Community Involvement ... 230 EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ... 232 SUMMING UP ... 234 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 234 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 235 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 235 CHAPTER TEN : Instructional Practices ... 237 OVERVIEW ... 237 VALUING INDIVIDUAL AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ... 238 Recognizing and Accepting Diversity ... 238 EFFECTIVE EDUCATORS IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS ... 240 Knowledge ... 240 Attitudes ... 240 Skills ... 242 Behaviors Essential in Multicultural Classrooms ... 244 EDUCATOR SELF-EVALUATION ... 245 ORGANIZATION AND INSTRUCTION - CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 247 Ability Grouping ... 248 Cooperative Learning ... 248 Language Differences ... 250 THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT ... 252 Working toward a Multicultural School Environment ... 252 PROMOTING SELF-ESTEEM AND POSITIVE CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 256 DIVERSITY AMONG FACULTY AND STAFF ... 258 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ... 258 Socioeconomic and Class Differences ... 258 The Role of Parents and Families ... 259 LEARNER EVALUATION ... 260 Evaluating Learners' Progress ... 260 SUMMING UP ... 261 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 261 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 262 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 262 CHAPTER ELEVEN : Individual and Cultural Differences ... 263 OVERVIEW ... 263 THE REALITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY ... 264 DIFFERENCES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON LEARNING ... 265 Achievement, Intelligence, and Cognitive Processes ... 265 Self-Esteem ... 267 Gender ... 268 DEVELOPMENTAL LEVELS AND COGNITIVE READINESS ... 269 Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values ... 270 Motivation ... 270 Socioeconomic Class ... 273 EXCEPTIONALITIES ... 273 The Dangers of Labeling and Erroneous Placement ... 273 Disabling Conditions ... 275 Gifted and Talented ... 275 LANGUAGE ... 276 Dialect Differences ... 277 Language and Culture : Inseparable Relationships ... 278 Multicultural Programs Emphasizing Language Diversity ... 278 Effective Strategies for Linguistically Different Learners ... 278 Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language ... 280 CELEBRATING AND RESPONDING TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY ... 282 BUILDING CULTURAL IDENTITIES ... 284 Learning Styles ... 285 SUMMING UP ... 287 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 287 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 287 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 288 CHAPTER TWELVE : Parents and Families of Culturally Diverse Backgrounds ... 289 OVERVIEW ... 289 INVOLVING AND EDUCATING PARENTS AND FAMILIES ... 290 The Advantages of Parent Involvement and Education ... 290 Understanding Both Immediate and Extended Families ... 291 Reasons Parents Might Resist Teachers' Efforts ... 291 UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIVERSITY ... 294 EFFECTIVE PARENT INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMS ... 296 Parents and Families of Culturally Different Backgrounds ... 298 VISITING PARENTS AND FAMILIES IN THE HOME ... 300 COMMUNICATION ... 301 INVOLVING PARENTS AND FAMILIES AS VOLUNTEERS ... 303 PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES ... 305 PARENT ADVISORY COUNCILS ... 306 PARENT AND FAMILY EDUCATION ... 308 Rationale for Parent Education Programs ... 308 SPECIAL NEEDS OF PARENTS AND FAMILIES ... 309 Formats of Parent Education Programs ... 309 Helping Parents Understand Their Roles and School Expectations ... 310 SUMMING UP ... 311 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 312 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 312 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 313 CHAPTER THIRTEEN : Administrators and Special School Personnel ... 314 OVERVIEW ... 314 ADMINISTRATORS, FACULTY, AND STAFF : TOWARD TOTAL SCHOOL EFFORTS ... 315 THE ROLES OF ADMINISTRATORS IN MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION ... 317 FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CLASSROOM EDUCATORS : WORKING WITH ADMINISTRATORS ... 319 EVALUATION OF ADMINISTRATORS' EFFORTS AND COMMITMENT ... 321 THE ROLE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION PROGRAM ... 321 TESTING AND ASSESSMENT ... 322 LEGAL PERSPECTIVES ... 323 From the Perspective of Classroom Educators : Working with Special-Education Teachers ... 324 LIBRARY MEDIA SPECIALISTS ... 326 Selecting Culturally Appropriate Print and Nonprint Media ... 327 Coordinating Efforts with Classroom Educators ... 327 From the Perspective of Classroom Educators : Working with Library Media Specialists ... 327 COUNSELORS' ROLES IN MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION ... 329 Understanding and Counseling ... 329 American Indians ... 330 African Americans ... 330 Arab Americans ... 330 Asian Americans ... 331 Hispanic Americans ... 331 European Americans ... 331 Testing and Assessment ... 332 From the Perspective of Classroom Educators : Working with Counselors ... 333 COMMUNICATIONS DISORDER SPECIALISTS ... 335 Roles in Multicultural Education ... 335 From the Perspective of Classroom Educators : Working with the Communications Disorder Specialist ... 337 SERVICE LEARNING ... 339 SUMMING UP ... 339 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 341 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 341 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 342 PART Ⅳ THE FUTURE OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION ... 343 CHAPTER FOURTEEN : sues for the Twenty-First Century ... 345 OVERVIEW ... 345 MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AS A CONCEPT ... 346 Scope of Multicultural Education ... 346 Differences between Stated Ideals and Practice ... 346 Approaches to Race, Class, and Gender ... 346 RACISM, DISCRIMINATION, AND INJUSTICE ... 348 Lingering Racism and Discrimination ... 348 BLAMING THE VICTIM ... 349 More Humanistic Perspectives ... 350 TESTING AND ASSESSMENT ... 350 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION ... 352 Dialects ... 352 Bilingual Education ... 353 English as a Second Language ... 354 Nonverbal Communication ... 355 ACCEPTING THE RESPONSIBILITY TO BE PROFESSIONALLY QUALIFIED AND COMMITTED ... 356 Ensuring Cultural Diversity in All Curricular Materials ... 357 Ensuring That Multicultural Emphasis Permeates All Curricular Areas and the School Environment ... 358 Involving Parents, Families, and the Community ... 358 SUMMING UP ... 359 SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES ... 359 SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ... 360 EXPANDING YOUR HORIZONS : ADDITIONAL JOURNAL READINGS AND BOOKS ... 360 References ... 363 Author Index ... 377 Subject Index ... 381