CONTENTS Part One The Global Financial System in Perspective Chapter One The Many Roles of the Financial System in the Global Economy ... 1 The Global Economy and the Financial System ... 2 Flows within the Global Economic System ... 2 The Role of Markets in the Global Economic System ... 2 Types of Markets ... 3 The Financial Markets and the Financial System : Channel for Savings and Investment ... 4 Functions Performed by the Global Financial System and the Financial Markets ... 6 Savings Function ... 6 Wealth Function ... 6 Liquidity Function ... 8 Credit Function ... 8 Payments Function ... 8 Risk Function ... 9 Policy Function ... 9 Types of Financial Markets within the Global Financial System ... 10 The Money Market versus the Capital Market ... 10 Divisions of the <B><FONT color ... #0000 Open versus Negotiated Markets ... 13 Primary versus Secondary Markets ... 13 Spot versus Futures, Forward, and Option Markets ... 14 Factors Tying All Financial Markets Together ... 17 The Dynamic Financial System ... 20 The Plan of This Book ... 20 Study Questions ... 22 Problems ... 22 Selected References ... 25 Chapter Two Financial Assets, Money, and Financial Transactions in the Global Financial System ... 26 The Creation of Financial Assets ... 27 Characteristics of Financial Assets ... 27 Different Kinds of Financial Assets ... 27 The Creation Process for Financial Assets ... 28 Financial Assets and the Financial System ... 30 Lending and Borrowing in the Financial System ... 33 Money as a Financial Asset ... 35 What is Money? ... 35 The Functions of Money ... 37 The Evolution of Financial Transactions ... 38 Direct Finance ... 38 Semidirect Finance ... 39 Indirect Finance ... 40 Relative Size and Importance of Major Financial Institutions ... 41 Classification of Financial Institutions ... 43 Portfolio Decisions by Financial Intermediaries and Other Financial Institutions ... 43 Disintermediation of Funds ... 44 New Types of Disintermediation ... 45 Summary ... 47 Study Questions ... 47 Problems ... 48 Selected References ... 49 Chapter Three Sources of Information for Financial Decision Making in the <B><FONT color ... #0000 Efficient Markets and Asymmetric Information ... 51 The Efficient Markets Hypothesis(EMH) ... 51 The Concept of Asymmetric information ... 55 Problems Informational Asymmetries Can Create : Lemons and Plums ... 58 Problems Asymmetries Can Create : The Problem of Adverse Selection ... 59 The Moral Hazard Problem ... 60 Asymmetry, Efficiency, and Real-World Markets ... 61 Possible Remedies for informational Asymmetries ... 62 Debt Security Prices and Yields ... 63 Stock Prices and Dividend Yields ... 64 Information on Security Issuers ... 68 General Economic and Financial Conditions ... 71 Social Accounting Data ... 77 National Income Accounts ... 77 The Flow of Funds Accounts ... 77 Summary ... 89 Study Questions ... 89 Problems ... 90 Selected References ... 91 Part Two The Management and Regulation of Financial Institutions Chapter Four The Commercial Banking Industry ... 92 The Structure of U. S. Commercial Banking ... 93 A Trend toward Consolidation ... 93 Branch Banking ... 94 Bank Holding Companies ... 95 International Banking ... 95 Bank Failures ... 99 Changing Technology ... 99 Portfolio Characteristics of Commercial Banks ... 100 Cash and Due from Banks(Primary Reserves) ... 102 Security Holdings and Secondary Reserves ... 102 Loans ... 104 Deposits ... 105 Nondeposit Sources of Funds ... 106 Equity Capital ... 107 Revenues and Expenses ... 107 Money Creation and Destruction by Banks ... 109 Reserve Requirements and Excess Reserves ... 110 The Creation of Money and Credit ... 111 Destruction of Deposits and Reserves ... 113 Implications of Money Creation and Destruction ... 115 Summary ... 116 Study Questions ... 116 Problems ... 116 Selected References ... 118 Chapter Five Nonbank Thrift Institutions : Savings and Loan Associations, Savings Banks, Credit Unions, and Money Market Funds ... 119 Savings and Loan Associations ... 120 Origins ... 120 How Funds Are Raised and Allocated ... 121 Trends in Revenues and Costs ... 123 Possible Remedies for the Industry's Problems ... 128 Savings Banks ... 128 Number and Distribution of Savings Banks ... 129 How Funds are Raised and Allocated ... 129 Current Trends and Future Problems ... 130 Credit Unions ... 130 Credit Union Membership ... 132 Size of Credit Unions ... 132 New Services Offered ... 132 A Strong Competitive Force ... 135 Money Market Funds ... 135 Summary ... 142 Study Questions ... 143 Problems ... 143 Selected References ... 144 Chapter Six Mutual Funds, Pension Funds, Insurance Companies, Finance Companies and Other Financial Institutions ... 145 Mutual Funds(or Investment Companies) ... 146 The Background of Investment Companies ... 146 Tax Status of the Industry ... 148 Open-End and Closed-End Investment Companies ... 148 Goals and Earnings of Investment Companies ... 149 Pension Funds ... 150 Growth of Pension Funds ... 150 Investment Strategies of Pension Funds ... 153 Pension Fund Assets ... 154 Factors Affecting the Future Growth of Pension Funds ... 155 Life Insurance Companies ... 156 The Insurance Principle ... 157 Investments of Life Insurance Companies ... 157 Sources of Life Insurance Company Funds ... 161 Structure and Growth of the Life Insurance Industry ... 161 New Services ... 162 Property-Casualty Insurance Companies ... 163 Makeup of the Property-Casualty(P/C) Insurance Industry ... 163 Changing Risk Patterns in Property/Liability Coverage ... 166 Investments by Property-Casualty(P/C) Companies ... 169 Sources of Income ... 169 Business Cycles, Inflation, and Competition ... 170 Finance Companies ... 170 Different Finance Companies for Different Purposes ... 171 Growth of Finance Companies ... 173 Methods of Industry Financing ... 173 Recent Changes in the Character of the Finance Company Industry ... 173 Other Financial Institutions ... 174 Trends Affecting All Financial Institutions Today ... 175 Summary ... 176 Study Questions ... 177 Problems ... 177 Selected References ... 179 Chapter Seven The Regulation of Financial Institutions ... 180 The Reasons behind the Regulation of Financial Institutions ... 181 Does Regulation Benefit or Harm Financial Institutions? ... 182 The Regulation of Commercial Banks ... 184 The Federal Reserve System ... 184 The Comptroller of the Currency ... 184 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ... 186 State Banking Commissions ... 186 Regulations Controlling the Geographic Expansion of Banks ... 187 Regulation of the Services Banks Can Offer ... 191 The Rise of Disclosure Laws in Banking ... 193 The Growing Importance of Capital Regulation in Banking ... 193 The Unfinished Agenda for Banking Regulation ... 195 The Regulation of Nonbank Thrift Institutions ... 197 Credit Unions ... 197 Savings and Loans ... 198 Savings Banks ... 203 Money Market Funds ... 204 The Regulation of Insurance Companies ... 204 The Regulation of Pension Funds ... 204 The Regulation of Finance Companies ... 205 The Regulation of Investment Companies ... 206 An Overview of Trends in the Regulation of Financial Institutions ... 206 Study Questions ... 210 Problems ... 211 Selected References ... 211 Part Three Interest Rates and Security Prices Chapter Eight Interest Rates in the Financial System ... 213 Functions of the Rate of Interest in the Economy ... 214 The Classical Theory of Interest Rates ... 214 Saving by Households ... 215 Saving by Business Firms ... 215 Saving by Government ... 216 The Demand for Investment Funds ... 216 The Equilibrium Rate of Interest in the Classical Theory of Interest ... 219 Limitations of the Classical Theory of Interest ... 220 The Liquidity Preference or Cash Balances Theory of Interest Rates ... 223 The Demand for Liquidity ... 223 The Supply of Money(Cash Balances) ... 226 The Equilibrium Rate of Interest in Liquidity Preference Theory ... 227 Limitations of the Liquidity Preference Theory ... 227 The Loanable Funds Theory of Interest ... 228 The Demand for Loanable Funds ... 229 Total Demand for Loanable Funds ... 230 The Supply of Loanable Funds ... 230 Total Supply of Loanable Funds ... 232 The Equilibrium Rate of Interest in the Loanable Funds Theory ... 233 The Rational Expectations Theory ... 235 Summary ... 239 Study Questions ... 239 Problems ... 240 Selected References ... 242 Chapter Nine Relationships between Interest Rates and Security Prices ... 243 Units of Measurement for Interest Rates and Security Prices ... 243 Definition of Interest Rates ... 243 Basis Points ... 244 Security Prices ... 244 Measures of the Rate of Return, or Yield, on a Loan or Security ... 245 Coupon Rate ... 245 Current Yield ... 246 Yield to Maturity ... 246 Holding-Period Yield ... 247 Calculating Yields to Maturity and Holding-Period Yields ... 248 Yield-Price Relationships ... 251 Interest Rates Charged by Institutional Lenders ... 254 The Simple Interest Method ... 254 Add-On Rate of Interest ... 255 Discount Method ... 255 Home Mortgage Interest Rate ... 256 Annual Percentage Rate(APR) ... 257 Compound Interest ... 258 The Annual Percentage Yield(APY) ... 259 Summary ... 261 Study Questions ... 261 Problems ... 262 Selected References ... 263 Chapter Ten Inflation, Yield Curves, and Duration ... 264 Inflation and Interest Rates ... 265 The Correlation between Inflation and Interest Rates ... 265 The Nominal and Real Interest Rates ... 266 The Fisher Effect ... 266 The Harrod-Keynes Effect of Inflation ... 267 Alternative Views on Inflation and Interest Rates ... 268 Inflation and Stock Prices ... 273 The Development of New Inflation-Adjusted Securities ... 275 The Maturity of a Loan ... 278 The Yield Curve and the Term Structure of Interest Rates ... 278 Types of Yield Curves ... 278 The Unbiased Expectations Hypothesis ... 279 The Role of Expectations in Shaping the Yield Curve ... 281 Relative Changes in Long-Term Interest Rates ... 282 Policy Implications of the Unbiased Expectations Hypothesis ... 283 The Liquidity Premium View of the Yield Curve ... 283 The Segmented-Markets or Hedging-Pressure Argument ... 284 Policy Implications of the Segmented-Markets Theory ... 284 The Preferred Habitat or Composite Theory of the Yield Curve ... 285 Research Evidence on Yield-Curve Theories ... 286 Uses of the Yield Curve ... 288 Duration : A Different Approach to Maturity ... 290 The Price Elasticity of a Debt Security ... 290 The Impact of Varying Coupon Rates ... 291 An Alternative Maturity Index for a Security : Duration ... 291 Uses of Duration ... 293 Limitations of Duration ... 295 Summary ... 296 Study Questions ... 297 Problems ... 297 Selected References ... 299 Chapter Eleven Marketability, Default Risk, Call Privileges, Prepayment Risk, Taxes, and Other Factors Affecting Interest Rates ... 301 Marketability ... 302 Liquidity ... 302 Default Risk and Interest Rates ... 303 The Premium for Default Risk ... 303 The Expected Rate of Return or Yield on a Risky Security ... 304 Anticipated Loss and Default Risk Premiums ... 304 Factors Influencing Default Risk Premiums ... 305 Inflation and Default Risk Premiums ... 312 Yield Curves for Risky Securities ... 312 The Rise and Fall of Junk Bonds ... 312 A Summary of the Default Risk-Interest Rate Relationship ... 314 Call Privileges and Call Risk ... 314 Calculating the Yields on Called Securities ... 314 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Call Privilege ... 315 The Call Premium and Interest Rate Expectations ... 317 Research Evidence ... 318 Effect of Coupon Rates on Call Risk ... 318 Prepayment Risk and the Interest Rates on Loan-Backed Securities ... 319 Taxation of Security Returns ... 320 Treatment of Capital Losses ... 322 Tax-Exempt Securities ... 322 Convertible Securities ... 326 The Structure of Interest Rates ... 327 Study Questions ... 328 Problems ... 329 Selected References ... 330 Chapter Twelve Interest Rate Forecasting and Hedging against Interest Rate Risk ... 332 The Influence of the Business Cycle in Shaping Interest Rates ... 333 Relative Movements in Short- and Long-Term Interest Rates and Security Prices over the Business Cycle ... 334 Seasonality in Interest Rates ... 336 Forecasting Interest Rates : Advantages and Problems ... 337 Advantages of Rate Forecasting ... 337 Problems in Forecasting Interest Rates ... 337 Approaches to Modern Interest Rate Forecasting ... 338 Money Supply Approaches ... 338 Inflation and the Fisher Effect ... 339 Econometric Models ... 340 Following the Forward Calendar of New Security Offerings ... 341 Market Expectations and Implied Rate Forecasting ... 342 The Consensus Forecast ... 343 Interest Rate Risk Hedging Strategies ... 344 Duration ... 344 Stripped Securities ... 345 GAP Management ... 345 Interest Rate Caps, Floors, and Collars ... 347 Loan Options ... 347 Interest Rate SWAPS ... 347 Summary ... 353 Study Questions ... 354 Problems ... 354 Selected References ... 356 Chapter Thirteen Financial Futures and Options Contracts ... 358 The Nature of Futures Trading ... 358 General Principles of Hedging ... 359 Opening and Closing a Hedge ... 359 Why Hedging Can Be Effective ... 360 Risk Selection through Hedging ... 361 Financial Futures ... 362 The Purpose of Trading in Financial Futures ... 362 Securities Used in Financial Futures Contracts ... 362 U. S. Treasury Bonds and Notes ... 365 U. S. Treasury Bills ... 366 Eurodollar Time Deposits ... 366 Other Money Market Futures Contracts ... 367 Municipal(State and Local Government) Bonds ... 367 New Foreign Bond Index Futures Contracts ... 367 Stock Index Futures ... 367 Types of Hedging in the Financial Futures Market ... 368 The Long(or Buying) Hedge ... 369 The Short(or Selling) Hedge ... 370 Cross Hedging ... 371 The Mechanics of Futures Trading ... 372 Payoff Diagrams for Long and Short Futures Contracts ... 374 Option Contracts on Financial Futures ... 375 Basic Types of Option Contracts ... 375 Option Contracts for Money Market and Capital Market Instruments ... 376 Uses of Options on Futures Contracts ... 377 Payoff Diagrams for Valuing Options ... 379 The Black-Scholes Model for Valuing Options ... 383 Traders Active in the Futures and Options Markets ... 385 Potential Benefits from the Futures and Options Markets ... 385 Summary ... 389 Study Questions ... 390 Problems ... 390 Selected References ... 392 Part Four The Money Market Chapter Fourteen Characteristics of the Money Market ... 393 Characteristics of the Money Market ... 394 The Need for a Money Market ... 394 Borrowers and Lenders in the Money Market ... 395 The Goals of Money Market Investors ... 395 Types of Investment Risk ... 397 Money Market Maturities ... 399 Depth and Breadth of the Money Market ... 399 Federal Funds versus Clearinghouse Funds ... 400 A Market for Large Borrowers and Lenders ... 400 The Volume of Money Market Securities ... 402 The Pattern of Interest Rates in the Money Market ... 403 Summary ... 45 Study Questions ... 406 Problems ... 406 Selected References ... 407 Chapter Fifteen Treasury Bills, Dealer Loans, and Repurchase Agreements ... 408 U. S. Treasury Bills ... 409 Volume of Bills Outstanding ... 409 Types of Treasury Bills ... 410 How Bills Are Sold ... 410 Results of a Recent Bill Auction ... 411 Calculating the Yield on Bills ... 412 Market Interest Rates on Treasury Bills ... 414 Investors in Treasury Bills ... 417 Primary Dealers, Dealer Loans, and Repurchase Agreements ... 417 Scandal Rocks the Market for Government Securities ... 418 Proposals for New Ways to Auction Government Securities ... 419 Governments Security Dealers' Reliance on Borrowed Funds ... 421 Demand Loans ... 421 Repurchase Agreements ... 421 Sources of Dealer Income ... 424 Dealer Positions in Securities ... 425 Changing Sources of Dealer Financing ... 426 Dealer Transactions and Government Security Brokers ... 426 Summary ... 428 Study Questions ... 428 Problems ... 429 Selected References ... 429 Chapter Sixteen Banks in the Money Market : Federal Funds, Negotiable CDs, and Loans from the Discount Window ... 431 Federal Funds ... 433 Nature of Federal Funds ... 434 Use of the Federal Funds Market to Meet Deposit Reserve Requirements ... 433 Mechanics of Federal Funds Trading ... 435 Volume of Borrowings in the Funds Market ... 436 Rates on Federal Funds ... 437 Federal Funds and Government Policy ... 437 Negotiable Certificates of Deposit ... 439 Growth of CDs ... 439 Terms Attached to CDs ... 440 Buyers of CDs ... 442 CDs in Liability Management ... 443 New Types of CDs ... 443 Loans from the Federal Reserve's Discount Window ... 445 Causes and Effects of Borrowing from the Discount Window ... 446 Collateral for Discount Window Loans ... 447 Restrictions on Federal Reserve Credit ... 447 The Federal Reserve's Discount Rate ... 448 Concluding Comment on Bank Activity in the Money Market ... 450 Study Questions ... 451 Problems ... 452 Selected References ... 453 Chapter Seventeen Corporations in the Money Market : Commercial Paper and Federal Agency Securities ... 454 Commercial Paper ... 455 What Is Commercial Paper? ... 455 Types of Commercial Paper ... 455 Recent Growth of Commercial Paper ... 457 Maturities and Rates of Return on Commercial Paper ... 460 Changing Yields on Paper Issues ... 461 Advantages of Issuing Commercial Paper ... 461 Possible Disadvantages from Issuing Commercial Paper ... 462 Principal Investors ... 463 Continuing Innovation in the Paper Market ... 464 Commercial Paper Ratings ... 465 Dealers in Paper ... 466 Federal Agency Securities ... 466 Types of Federal Credit Agencies ... 467 Growth of the Agency Market ... 468 Terms on Agency Securities ... 470 The Marketing of Agency Issues ... 471 Summary ... 472 Study Questions ... 472 Problems ... 473 Selected References ... 474 Chapter Eighteen International Money Market Instruments : Bankers' Acceptances and Eurocurrency Deposits ... 475 Bankers' Acceptances ... 476 Why Acceptances Are Used in International Trade ... 476 How Acceptances Arise ... 477 The Growth and Decline of Acceptance Financing ... 478 Acceptance Rates ... 480 Investors in Acceptances ... 480 Eurocurrency Deposits ... 481 What Is a Eurodollar? ... 482 The Creation of Eurocurrency Deposits ... 483 Eurocurrency Maturities and Risks ... 485 The Supply of Eurocurrency Deposits ... 486 Eurodollars in U. S. Domestic Bank Operations ... 486 Recent Innovations in the Eurocurrency Markets ... 489 Benefits and Costs of the Eurocurrency Markets ... 489 Summary ... 490 Study Questions ... 491 Problems ... 491 Selected References ... 492 Part Five Central Banking and Monetary Policy Chapter Nineteen Central Banks around the World and the Role of the Federal Reserve System ... 493 The Roles of Central Banks in the Economy and Financial System ... 494 Control of the Money Supply ... 494 Stabilizing the <B><FONT color ... #0000 Lender of Last Resort ... 495 Maintaining and Improving the Payments Mechanism ... 495 The Goals and Channels of Central Banking ... 496 The Channels through Which Central Banks Work ... 497 The History of the Federal Reserve System - Central Bank of the United States ... 498 Problems in the Early U. S. Banking System ... 500 Creation of the Federal Reserve System ... 502 The Early Structure of the Federal Reserve System ... 503 Goals and Policy Tools of the Federal Reserve System ... 503 How the Fed Is Organized ... 504 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System ... 505 The Federal Open Market Committee and Manager of the System Open Market Account ... 506 The Federal Reserve Banks ... 507 The