CONTENTS Preface ... xvii PART ONE THE CONCEPT OF DELINQUENCY ... 1 CHAPTER ONE CHILDHOOD AND DELINQUENCY ... 3 The Adolescent Dilemma ... 6 Youth in Crisis ... 8 Are There Reasons for Hope? ... 9 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Risky Business ... 10 The Study of Juvenile Delinquency ... 12 The Development of Childhood ... 13 Custom and Practice in the Middle Ages ... 14 The Development of Concern for Children ... 15 Childhood in America ... 18 Controlling Children ... 18 The Concept of Delinquency ... 19 Delinquency and Parens Patriae ... 19 The Legal Status of Delinquency ... 20 Legal Responsibility of Youths ... 20 Status Offenders ... 21 The Status Offender in the Juvenile Justice System ... 24 Aiding the Status Offender ... 24 Reforming Status Offense Laws ... 25 Increasing Social Control ... 26 Should the Courts Control Status Offenders? ... 27 Case in Point ... 28 The "Dilemma" of Delinquency ... 28 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Youth Crime Around th World ... 30 Summary ... 32 Key Terms ... 33 Info Trac College Edition Exercises ... 33 Questions for Discussion ... 33 Notes ... 33 CHARTER TOW THE NATUREA AND EXTENT OF DELINQUENCY ... 36 Official Statistics ... 39 Crime Trends in the United States ... 39 Measuring Offcial Delinquency ... 41 Criticism of Official Data ... 43 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Rise and Fall of Juvenile Crime Rates ... 44 Self-Reported Delinquency ... 46 Self-Report Aata ... 47 Validating Self-reports ... 49 Correlates of Delinquency ... 50 Gender and Delinquency ... 51 Racial Patte군 in Delinquency ... 52 Social Class and Delinquency ... 55 Age and Delinquency ... 57 Chronic Offending: Careers in Delinquency ... 59 The Glueck Research ... 59 The Chronic Juvenile Offender ... 60 Stability in Crime: From Delinquent to Criminal ... 63 Policy Implications ... 64 Juvenile victimization ... 64 Case in Point ... 65 Victimization in the United States ... 66 Young Victims ... 66 The Victims and Their Criminals ... 67 Summary ... 70 Dey Terms ... 70 Info Trac College Edition Exercises ... 71 Questions for Discussion ... 71 Notes ... 71 PART TWO THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY ... 75 CHAPTER THREE FOCUS ON THE INDIVIDUAL: CHOICE AND TRAIT THEORIES ... 77 The Rational Delinquent ... 80 Choosing Delinquent Acts ... 81 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Is Delinquency "Seductive"? ... 82 Routine Activities ... 83 Preventing Delinquency ... 85 General Deterrence ... 85 Specific Deterrence ... 86 Situational Crime Prevention ... 87 Do Delinquents Choose Crime? ... 88 Trait Theories: Biosocial and Psychological Views ... 90 The Origins of Trait Theory ... 90 Contemporary Biosocial Theory ... 92 Biochemical Factors ... 93 Neurological Dysfunction ... 94 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ... 96 Genetic Influencdes ... 98 Evolutionary Theory ... 100 Psychological Theories of Delinquency ... 101 Psychodynamic Theory ... 102 Behavioral Theory ... 105 Cognitive Theory ... 108 Personality and Delinquency ... 110 Intelligence and Delinquency ... 112 Critiquing Trait Theory Views ... 114 Defending Trait Theory ... 115 Trait Theory and Delinquency Prevention ... 115 Case in Point ... 117 Summary ... 117 Dey Terms ... 118 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 119 Questions for Discussion ... 119 Notes ... 119 CHAPTER FOUR SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND DELINQUENCY ... 125 Social Stratification ... 129 Being Poor ... 129 Social Structure and Delinquency ... 130 FOCUS ON dELINQUENCY: Race and Poverty ... 132 The Branches of Social Structure Theory ... 132 Social Disorganization Theory ... 134 The Area Studies of Shaw and McKay ... 135 Contemporary Social Ecology ... 138 Does Delinquency Cause Poverty? ... 140 Case in Point ... 143 Strain Theory ... 143 Merton's Theory of Anomie ... 145 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Crime and the American Dream ... 146 General Strain Theory(GST) ... 148 Cultural Deviance Theories ... 151 Development of Subcultures ... 152 Subcultural Values Today ... 154 Cohen's Theory of Delinquent Subculture ... 154 Opportunity Theory ... 156 Social Structure Theory and Delinquency Prevention ... 157 Summary ... 158 Key Terms ... 159 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 160 Questions for Discussion ... 160 Note ... 160 CHAPTER FIVE SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES: LEARNING, CONTROL, AND DEVELOPMENTAL ... 163 Social Processes and Delinquency ... 166 Learning Theories ... 167 Differential Association Theory ... 168 Differential Reinforcement Theory ... 173 Neutralization Theory ... 173 Control Theories ... 176 Self-Concept and Delinquency ... 177 Hirschi's Concept Theory ... 178 The General Theory of Crime ... 182 Developmental Perspectives ... 185 Continuity of Crime ... 186 Multiple Pathways to Delinquency ... 189 Problem Behavior Syndrome ... 189 Offense Specialization ... 191 Constructing Developmental Theories ... 191 The Social Development Model ... 191 POLICY AND PRACTICE: The Social Development Model ... 194 Interactional Theory ... 194 Age-Graded Theory ... 197 Policy Implications ... 198 Case in Point ... 199 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Head Start ... 200 Summary ... 202 Key Terms ... 202 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 202 Questions for Discussion ... 203 Notes ... 203 CHAPTER SIX SOCIAL REACTION THEORIES: LABELING AND CONFLICT ... 207 Labeling Theory ... 210 Applying Labels ... 211 Who Defines Deviance? ... 211 The Effect of Labeling ... 212 Primary and Secondary Deviance ... 214 The Juvenile Justice Process and Labeling ... 215 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Prosecutor's Precharging Diversion Program ... 216 Valuation of Labeling Theory ... 219 Social Conflict Theory ... 220 The Emergence of Critical Criminology ... 220 Case in Point ... 221 The Branches of Conflict Theory ... 222 Elements of Social Conflict Theory ... 223 The Conflict concept of Delinquency ... 225 Emerging Concepts of conflict theory ... 226 Social Reaction Theories and Delinquency Prevention ... 228 Restorative Justice ... 229 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Restorative Justice in Practice ... 232 Summary ... 234 Key Terms ... 235 InfoTrac College Edition Exeercises ... 235 Questions for Discussion ... 235 Notes ... 235 PART THREE ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON DELINQUENCY ... 239 CHAPTER SEVEN GENDER AND DELINQUENCY ... 241 Gender Differences in Development ... 244 Socialization Differences ... 244 Cognitive Differences ... 245 Personality Differences ... 245 What Causes Gender Differences? ... 245 Gender Differences and Delinquency ... 247 Gender Patterns in Delinquency ... 247 Violent Behavior ... 248 Trait Views of Female Delinquency ... 249 Biological Explanations ... 250 Psychological Explanations ... 251 Contemporary Trait Views ... 251 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Biosocial Study of Female Delinquency ... 252 Case in Point ... 255 Socialization Views ... 257 Socialization and Delinquency ... 257 Contemporary Socialization Views ... 259 Liberal Feminist Views ... 260 Sisters in Crime ... 261 Support for Liberal Feminism ... 262 Critiques of Liberal Feminism ... 262 Is Convergence Possible? ... 263 Radical Feminist Views ... 263 Crime and Patriarchy ... 264 Power-Control Theory ... 264 Gender and the Juvenile Justice System ... 265 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Guardians of Virtue ... 266 Are Standards Changing? ... 267 Summary ... 268 Key Terms ... 269 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 269 Questions for Discussion ... 269 Notes ... 269 CHAPTER EIGHT THE FAMILY AND DELINQUENCY: MAKEUP, INFLUENCE, AND ABUSE ... 273 The Changing American Family ... 276 Family Makeup ... 276 Child Care ... 276 Economic Stress ... 277 The Effects of Child Neglect and Abuse ... 277 The Family's Influence on Delinquency ... 277 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Do Parents Control Bdhaveior? ... 278 Family Breakup: Broken Homes ... 279 Family Conflict ... 282 The Quality of Parent-Child Relations ... 284 Parental Deviance ... 286 Child Abuse and Neglect ... 287 Historical Foundation ... 287 Defining Abuse and Neglect ... 288 Sexual Abuse ... 290 The Extent of Child Abuse ... 291 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Juvenile Prostitution ... 291 The Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect ... 295 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Women Who Have Killed Their Children ... 297 The Child Protection System: Philosophy and Practice ... 299 The Abused Child in Court ... 302 Case in Point ... 303 Disposition of Abuse and Neglect Cases ... 306 Abuse, Neglect, and Delinquency ... 306 The Abuse-Delinquency Link ... 308 The Family and Delinquency Prevention ... 309 Early Childhood Intervention ... 309 Improving Parenting Skills ... 310 Summary ... 311 Key Terms ... 311 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 311 Questions for Discussion ... 312 Notes ... 312 CHAPTER NINE PEERS AND DELINQUENCY: JUVENILE GANGS AND GROUPS ... 317 Adolescent Peer Relations ... 319 Peer Relations and Delinquency ... 320 Youth Gangs ... 321 What Are Gangs? ... 322 Near Groups and Youth Groups ... 324 The Study of Juvenile Gangs and Groups ... 324 Why Did Activity Increase? ... 326 Contemporary Gangs ... 327 Extent ... 327 Types ... 328 Location ... 329 Age ... 332 Gender ... 333 Formation ... 335 Leadership ... 335 Communications ... 336 Criminality ... 338 Ethnic and Racial Composition ... 340 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Barrio Gangs ... 342 Why do Youths Join Gangs? ... 345 Anthropological View ... 345 Social Disorganization / Sociocultural View ... 346 Psychological ... 347 Rational Choice View ... 348 Controlling Gang Activity ... 349 Law Enforcement Efforts ... 349 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Boston's Youth Violence Strike Force ... 351 Community control Efforts ... 351 Why Gang Control Is Difficult ... 352 POLICY AND PRACTICE: School-Based Gang Resistance Programs ... 353 Summary ... 353 Key Terms ... 354 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 354 Questions for Discussion ... 354 Notes ... 354 CHAPTER TEN SCHOOLS AND DELINQUENCY ... 358 The School in Modern American Society ... 360 Socialization and Status ... 361 Education in Crisis ... 362 Academic Performance and Delinquency ... 362 School Failure and Delinquency ... 364 The Causes of School Failure ... 364 Dropping Out ... 368 Delinquency within the School ... 370 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Bullying in School ... 376 Who Commits School Crime? ... 378 Reducing School Crime ... 378 The Role of the School in Delinquency Prevention ... 382 Case in Point ... 383 Legal Rights within the School ... 384 Compulsory School Attendance ... 385 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Keeping Children in School ... 386 Free Speech ... 388 School Discipline ... 390 Privacy ... 391 Summary ... 391 Key Terms ... 391 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 392 Questions for Discussion ... 392 Notes ... 392 CHAPTER ELEVEN DRUG USE AND DELINQUENCY ... 395 Substances of Abuse ... 397 Marijuana and Hashish ... 398 Cocaine ... 398 Heroin ... 399 Alcohol ... 399 Anesthetics ... 400 Inhalants ... 400 Sedatives and barbiturates ... 401 Tranquilizers ... 401 Hallucinogens ... 401 Stimulants ... 401 Steroids ... 402 Cigarettes ... 402 Drug Use Today ... 402 Drug Use Surveys ... 403 ISR Survey ... 404 PRIDE Survey ... 404 Why Has Teenage Drug Use Fluctuated? ... 405 Are the Survey Results Accurate? ... 407 Who Do Youths Take Drugs? ... 408 Social Disorganization ... 408 Peer Pressure ... 408 Family Factors ... 409 Genetic Factors ... 410 Emotional Problems ... 410 Problem Behavior Syndrome ... 411 Gateway Drugs ... 411 Rational Choice ... 412 Adolescents Who Use Drugs ... 413 Adolescents Who Distribute Small Amounts of Drugs ... 413 Adolescents Who Frequently Sell Drugs ... 413 Teenage Drug Dealers Who Commit Other Delinquent Acts ... 414 Drug-Involved Gangs ... 414 Losers and Burnouts ... 415 Persistent Offenders ... 416 Drug Use and Delinquency ... 416 Drugs and Chronic Offending ... 417 Explaining Drug Use and Delinquency ... 417 Drug Control Strategies ... 418 Law Enforcement Efforts ... 419 Education Strategies ... 420 Community Strategies ... 420 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Drug Abuse Resistance Education ... 421 Treatment Strategies ... 421 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Helping Families Prevent Teenage Drug Use ... 423 Case in Point ... 424 What Does the Future Hold? ... 424 Summary ... 425 Key Terms ... 425 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 425 Questions for Discussion ... 426 Notes ... 426 PART FOUR JUVENILE JUSTICE ADVOCACY ... 429 CHAPTER TWELVE THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF JUVENILE JUSTICE ... 431 The Development of Juvenile Justice in the Nineteenth Century ... 434 Urbanization ... 435 The Child-Saving Movement ... 435 Were They Really Child Savers? ... 437 The Development of Juvenile Institutions ... 438 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: Legal Challenges to the Child Savers ... 440 A Century of Juvenile Justice ... 441 The Illinois Juvenile Court Act and its Legacy ... 443 Reforming the System ... 445 The Role of the Supreme Court in Juvenile Law ... 446 The Contemporary Juvenile Justice System ... 450 The Juvenile Justice Process ... 450 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: The Juvenile Justice System: Key Players, Programs, and Costs ... 454 Criminal Justice versus Juvenile Justice ... 456 The Future of Juvenile Justice ... 459 A Comprehensive Juvenile Justice Strategy ... 459 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Similarities and Differences between Juvenile and Adult Justice Systems ... 460 Federal Funding for Juvenile Justice ... 462 Summary ... 463 POLICY AND PRACTICE: The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974-Twenty-Five Years Later ... 464 Key Terms ... 466 InfoTrac College Edition Exercises ... 466 Questions for Discussion ... 466 Notes ... 466 PART FIVE CONTROLLING JUVENILE OFFENDERS ... 469 CHAPTER THIRTEEN POLICE WORK WITH JUVENILES ... 471 The Police and Juvenile Offenders ... 474 Police Roles ... 475 The Police and Violent Juvenile Crime ... 476 The History and Organization of Juvenile Policing ... 477 The History of Policing Juveniles ... 478 Organization of Police Services for Juveniles ... 479 Police and the Rule of Law ... 480 The Arrest Procedure ... 480 Search and Sieizure ... 481 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Balanced and Restorative Justice for Juveniles ... 482 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: New Jersey v. T.L.O.(1984) ... 484 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: Vernonia School District 47J v. Wayne and Judy Acton, Guardians ad Litem for James Action(1995) ... 486 Custodial Interrogation ... 488 Discretionary Justice ... 489 Environmental Factors ... 491 Situational Factors ... 493 Bias and police Discretion ... 493 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Race, Gender, and Ethnicity in Juvenile Police Decision Making ... 495 Case in Point ... 497 Limiting Police Discretion ... 498 Police Work and Delinquency Prevention ... 498 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Promising Delinquency Prevention Programs in Law Enforcement ... 500 Community Policing in the Millennium ... 502 Summary ... 503 Key Terms ... 503 Info Trac College Edition Exercises ... 504 Questions for Discussion ... 504 Notes ... 504 CHAPTER FOURTEEN PRETRIAL PROCEDURES ... 507 The Concept of Detention ... 510 National Detention Trends ... 510 The Decision to Detain ... 513 New Approaches to Detention ... 514 Detention in Adult Jails ... 515 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Reforming the Juvenile Detention System ... 516 Deinstitutionalization of Status Offenders ... 518 Deinstitutionalization: A National Project ... 518 The Intake Proess ... 520 Diversion ... 522 Issues in Diversion: Widening the Net ... 523 Case in Point ... 524 The Petition and Pretrial Release ... 524 Bail for Children ... 525 Preventive Detention ... 527 The Plea and Plea Bargaining ... 527 JUVENILE LEW IN REVIEW; Schall v. Martin ... 528 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Pleading Guilty in Juvenile Court ... 530 Transfer to the Adult Court ... 530 Due Process in Transfer Proceedings ... 531 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW; Kent v. United States and Breed v. Jones ... 532 Youths in Adult Court ... 534 Debating the Waiver Concept ... 536 Case in Point ... 540 Summary ... 540 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Transferring Serious Juvenile Offenders to Adult Court ... 541 Key Terms ... 542 InfTrac College Edition Exercises ... 542 Questions for Discussion ... 543 Notes ... 543 CHAPTER FIFTEEN THE JUVENILE TRIAL AND DISPOSITION ... 546 The Juvenile Court and Its Jurisdiction ... 550 Age ... 551 POLICY AND PRACTICE: The Juvenile Drug Court Movement ... 522 Delinqyency ... 553 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Juvenile Delinquency in the Federal Judicial System ... 554 Status Offenders ... 555 Juvenile Courtroom Players ... 556 The Prosecutor in the Juvenile Court ... 557 The Juvenile Court Judge ... 558 The Defense Attorney ... 560 Adjudication ... 564 Constitutional Rights at Trial ... 566 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: In re Gault ... 568 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: In re Winship and McKeiver v. Pennsylvania ... 569 Disposition ... 572 The Predisposition Report ... 573 Juvenile Court Dispositions ... 575 The Child's Right to Appeal ... 575 Case in Point ... 576 Juvenile Sentencing Structures ... 577 Determinate versus Indeterminate Sentencing ... 578 Evaluating Tough Sentencing Laws ... 579 The Future of Juvenile Sentencing and Serious Crime ... 579 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Myth or Reality: The Juvenile Court System Is a Failure ... 581 JUVENILE LAW IN REVIEW: United States v. Lopez(1995) ... 582 The Death Penalty for Juveniles ... 584 Confidentiality in Juvenile Proceedings ... 585 Open versus Closed Hearings ... 585 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Juvenile Death Penalty ... 586 Privacy of Juvenile Records ... 587 Summary ... 587 Dey Terms ... 588 Info Trac College Edition Exercises ... 588 Questions for Discussion ... 588 Notes ... 589 PART SIX JUVENILE CORRECTIONS ... 593 CHAPTER SIXTEEN JUVENILE PROBATION AND COMMUNITY TREATMENT ... 595 Juvenile Probation ... 598 The Nature of Probation ... 598 Historical Development ... 599 Organization and Administration of Probation ... 600 Duties of Juvenile Probation Officers ... 601 Probation Innovations ... 605 Juvenile Intensive Probation Supervision ... 605 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Wayne County Intensive Probation Program ... 606 Electronic Monitoring ... 606 Wilderness Probation ... 608 Balanced Probation ... 609 Restitution ... 610 Does Restitution Work? ... 611 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Restitution in Utah ... 612 Community-Based Programs ... 613 Encouraging Community Corrections ... 615 Case in Point ... 616 Residential Community Treatment ... 617 Nonresidential Community Treatment ... 619 Pros and Cons of community Rteatment ... 619 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Three Model Nonresidential Programs ... 620 Summary ... 621 POLICY AND PRACTICE: A Case Study in Juvenile Justice Reform ... 622 Key Terms ... 622 Info Trac College Edition Exercises ... 623 Questions for Discussion ... 624 Notes ... 624 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN INSTITUTIONS FOR JUVENILES ... 626 The History of Juvenile Institutions ... 630 Twentieth-Century Developments ... 630 Juvenile Institutions Today: Public and Private ... 632 Trends in Juvenile Corrections ... 634 The Institutionized Juvenile ... 635 Personal Characteristics ... 637 Institutional Adjustment ... 638 Culture of the Female Offender ... 639 POLICY AND PRACTICE: Disproportionate Minority Confinement ... 640 Correctional Treatment for Juveniles ... 642 FOCUS ON DELINQUENCY: Here's a Program tnat Really Works ... 643 Individual Treatment Techniques: Past and Present ... 643 Group Treatment Technique