CONTENTS ONE How to Make Orderly Observations ... 1 Psychology as a Science ... 3 Quantitative Designs ... 5 Qualitative Designs ... 14 Quantitative versus Qualitative Designs ... 20 Using Methods in Combination ... 21 Summary ... 23 TWO How to Do Experiments ... 26 Variables ... 26 Threats to Internal Validity ... 32 Summary of the Experimental Method ... 38 Summary ... 40 THREE How to Get an Experimental Idea ... 42 Fearing Experimental Ideas ... 43 Observation ... 47 Vicarious Observation ... 51 Expanding on Your Own Research ... 53 Using Theory to Get Ideas ... 54 Importance of Psychological Research ... 66 Summary ... 67 FOUR How to Be Fair with Participants ... 69 Treating Human Participants Fairly ... 70 Treating Animals Fairly ... 88 Summary ... 95 FIVE How to Be Fair with Science ... 97 Dirty Tricks ... 99 Questionable Tricks ... 104 Neat Tricks ... 108 Summary ... 110 SIX How to Find Out What Has Been Done ... 112 Why Search the Literature? ... 112 The Timeliness of Sources ... 114 Formal Sources ... 116 Informal Sources ... 128 Summary ... 130 SEVEN How to Decide Which Variables to Manipulate and Measure ... 132 Choosing an Independent Variable ... 132 Choosing a Dependent Variable ... 137 Summary ... 148 EIGHT How to Decide on a Between-Subjects versus Within-Subject Design ... 150 Between-Subjects Experiments ... 152 Within-Subject Experiments ... 154 Matching ... 169 Summary ... 173 NINE How to Plan Single-Variable, Multiple-Variable, and Converging-Series Experiments ... 174 Single-Variable Experiments ... 174 Factorial Designs ... 182 Converging-Series Designs ... 189 Summary ... 194 TEN How to Design Nontraditional Research ... 196 Quasi-Experiments (and Nonexperimental Designs) ... 196 Single-Subject and Small-N Baseline Designs ... 207 Survey Research ... 215 Summary ... 227 ELEVEN How to Tell When You Are Ready to Begin ... 231 The Have-a-Nice-Day Society ... 232 Questions before You Begin ... 233 Summary ... 243 TWELVE How to Interpret Experimental Results ... 245 Plotting Frequency Distributions ... 246 Statistics for Describing Distributions ... 249 Plotting Relationships between Variables ... 252 Describing the Strength of a Relationship ... 256 Interpreting Results from Factorial Experiments ... 258 Inferential Statistics ... 262 Meta-Analysis ... 265 Using Computers to Help Interpret Results ... 267 Summary ... 268 THIRTEEN How to Report Experimental Results ... 271 How APA Style Differs from Other Writing ... 273 Parts of a Report ... 276 Reducing Language Bias ... 285 Writing Style ... 286 A Sample Report ... 288 Presentations at Conferences ... 303 Summary ... 309 EPILOGUE ... 311 APPENDIX A How to Do Basic Statistics ... 313 APPENDIX B Statistical Tables ... 329 APPENDIX C Table of Random Numbers ... 341 GLOSSARY ... 343 REFERENCES ... 353 INDEX ... 361