CONTENTS PREFACE ... xiii CHAPTER 1 TAX RESEARCH ... 1-1 Overview of Tax Research ... 1-2 Steps in the Tax Research Process ... 1-3 Importance of the Facts to the Tax Consequences ... 1-5 Ability to Create a Factual Situation Favoring the Taxpayer ... 1-6 The Sources of Tax Law ... 1-7 The Legislative Process ... 1-7 The Internal Revenue Code ... 1-8 Treasury Regulations ... 1-8 Administrative Interpretations ... 1-11 Judicial Decisions ... 1-14 Tax Treaties ... 1-24 Tax periodicals ... 1-24 Tax Services ... 1-25 United States Tax Reporter ... 1-25 Standard Federal Tax Reporter ... 1-26 Federal Tax Coordinator 2d ... 1-26 Law of Federal Income Taxation (Mertens) ... 1-27 Tax Management Portfolios ... 1-27 Cch Federal Tax Service ... 1-28 Citators ... 1-28 CCH Citator ... 1-28 Research institute of America Citator 2nd Series ... 1-31 Computers as a Research Tool ... 1-34 Statements on Standards for Tax Services ... 1-35 Problem Materials ... 1-38 Sample Work Papers and Client Letter ... 1-38 Discussion Questions ... 1-38 Problems ... 1-40 Comprehensive Problem ... 1-43 Tax Strategy Problem ... 1-43 Case Study Problem ... 1-43 Tax Research Problems ... 1-43 CHAPTER 2 CORPORATE FORMATIONS AND CAPITAL STRUCTURE ... 2-1 Organization Forms Available ... 2-2 Sole Proprietorships ... 2-2 Partnerships ... 2-3 Corporations ... 2-5 Limited Liability Companies ... 2-7 Limited Liability Partnerships ... 2-7 Check-the-box Regulations ... 2-8 Tax Considerations in Forming a Corporation ... 2-9 Legal Requirements for Forming a Corporation ... 2-9 Section 351 : Deferring Gain or Loss Upon Incorporation ... 2-12 The Property Requirement ... 2-12 The Control Requirement ... 2-13 The Stock Requirement ... 2-16 Effect of Sec. 351 on the Trasferors ... 2-16 Tax Consequences to Transferee Corporation ... 2-20 Assumption of the Transferorus Liabilities ... 2-21 Other Considerations in a Sec. 351 Exchange ... 2-24 Choice of Capital Structure ... 2-26 Characterization of Obligations as Debt or Equity Capital ... 2-26 Debt Capital ... 2-27 Equity Capital ... 2-28 Capital Contributions By Shareholders ... 2-28 Worthlessness of Stock or Debt Obligations ... 2-30 Capital Contributions By Nonshareholders ... 2-30 Securities ... 2-30 Unsecured Debt Obligations ... 2-32 Tax Planning Considerations ... 2-33 Avoiding Sec. 351 ... 2-33 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 2-35 Reporting Requirements Under Sec. 351 ... 2-35 Problem Materials ... 2-35 Discussion Questions ... 2-35 Issue Identification Questions ... 2-36 Problems ... 2-37 Comprehensive Problem ... 2-41 Tax Strategy Problem ... 2-42 Case Study Problem ... 2-42 Tax Research Problem ... 2-43 CHAPTER 3 THE CORPORATE INCOME TAX ... 3-1 Corporate Elections ... 3-2 Choosing a Calendar or Fiscal Year ... 3-2 Accounting Methods ... 3-4 General Formula for Determining the Corporate Tax Liability ... 3-5 Computing a Corporationus Taxable Income ... 3-5 Sales and Exchanges of Property ... 3-6 Business Expenses ... 3-7 Special Deductions ... 3-12 Exceptions for Closely-held Corporations ... 3-18 Computing a Corporationus Income Tax Liability ... 3-20 General Rules ... 3-20 Personal Service Corporations ... 3-22 Controlled Groups of Corporations ... 3-22 Why Special Rules Are Needed ... 3-22 What Is a Controlled Group ... 3-23 Application of the Controlled Group Test ... 3-26 Special Rules Applying to Controlled Groups ... 3-26 Consolidated Tax Returns ... 3-27 Tax Planning Considerations ... 3-28 Compensation Planning for Shareholder-Employees ... 3-28 Special Election to Allocate Reduced Tax Rate Benefits ... 3-29 Using Nol Carryovers and Carrybacks ... 3-31 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 3-31 Estimated Taxes ... 3-31 Requirements for Filing and Paying Taxes ... 3-34 When the Return must be Filed ... 3-35 Tax Return Schedules ... 3-35 Problem Materials ... 3-38 Discussion Questions ... 3-38 Issue Identification Questions ... 3-39 Problems ... 3-39 Comprehensive Problem ... 3-45 Tax Strategy Problem ... 3-46 Tax Form/Return Preparation Problem ... 3-46 Case Study Problems ... 3-47 Tax Research Problems ... 3-48 CHAPTER 4 CORPORATE NONLIQUIDATING DISTRIBUTIONS ... 4-1 Nonliquidating Distributions in General ... 4-2 Current Earnings and Profits ... 4-3 Distinction Between Current and Accumulated E&P ... 4-6 Earnings and Profits (E&P) ... 4-3 Nonliquidating Property Distributions ... 4-8 Consequences of Nonliquidating Property Distributions to the Shareholders ... 4-8 Consequences of Property Distributions to the Distributing Corporation ... 4-9 Constructive Dividends ... 4-11 Stock Dividends and Stock Rights ... 4-13 Tax-free Stock Dividends ... 4-14 Tax-free Stock Rights ... 4-15 Effect of Nontaxable Stock Dividends on the Distributing Corporation ... 4-16 Taxable Stock Dividends and Stock Rights ... 4-16 Stock Redemptions ... 4-16 Effect of the Redemption on the Shareholder ... 4-17 Attribution Rules ... 4-18 Substantially Disproportionate Redemptions ... 4-20 Complete Termination of the Shareholderus Interest ... 4-21 Redemptions Not Essentially Equivalent to A Dividend ... 4-23 Partial Liquidations ... 4-24 Redemptions to Pay Death Taxes ... 4-25 Effect of Redemptions on The Distributing Corporation ... 4-27 Preferred Stock Bailouts ... 4-28 Sec. 306 Stock Defined ... 4-28 Dispositions of Sec. 306 Stock ... 4-29 Redemptions of Sec. 306 Stock ... 4-29 Exceptions to Sec. 306 Treatment ... 4-30 Stock Redemptions By Related Corporations ... 4-30 Brother-sister Corporations ... 4-30 Parent-subsidiary Corporations ... 4-32 Tax Planningconsiderations ... 4-33 Avoiding Unreasonable Compensation ... 4-33 Bootstrap Acquisitions ... 4-34 Timing of Distributions ... 4-35 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 4-36 Corporate Reporting of Nondividend Distributions ... 4-36 Agreement to Terminate Interest Under Sec. 302 (b)(3) ... 4-36 Problem Materials ... 4-37 Discussion Questions ... 4-37 Issue Identification Questions ... 4-38 Problems ... 4-39 Comprehensive Problems ... 4-45 Tax Strategy Problems ... 4-46 Case Study Problems ... 4-46 Tax Research Problems ... 4-46 CHAPTER 5 OTHER CORPORATE TAX LEVIES ... 5-1 The Corporate Alternative Minimum Tax ... 5-2 The General Formula ... 5-2 Definitions ... 5-4 Tax Preference Items ... 5-6 Adjustments to Taxable Income ... 5-7 Adjusted Current Earnings (Ace) Adjustment ... 5-9 Minimum Tax Credit ... 5-13 Tax Credits and the AMT ... 5-14 Personal Holding Company ... 5-15 Personal Holding Company Defined ... 5-16 Stock Ownership Requirement ... 5-16 Passive Income Requirement ... 5-16 Determining the PHC Penalty Tax ... 5-21 Avoiding the PHC Designation and Tax Liability By Making Dividend Distributions ... 5-22 PHC Tax Calculation ... 5-23 Accumulated Earnings Tax ... 5-24 Corporations Subject to the Penalty Tax ... 5-24 Proving a Tax-Avoidance Purpose ... 5-25 Evidence Concerning the Reasonableness of an Earnings Accumulation ... 5-26 Determining the Accumulated Earnings Tax Liability ... 5-31 Accumulated Earnings Tax Calculation ... 5-33 Tax Planning Considerations ... 5-35 Special Amt Elections ... 5-35 Eliminating the ACE Adjustment ... 5-35 Avoiding the Personal Holding Company Tax ... 5-36 Avoiding the Accumulated Earnings Tax ... 5-26 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 5-37 Alternative Minimum Tax ... 5-37 Personal Holding Company Tax ... 5-37 Accumulated Earnings Tax ... 5-37 Problem Materials ... 5-38 Discussion Questions ... 5-38 Issue Identification Questions ... 5-41 Problems ... 5-41 Comprehensive Problem ... 5-47 Tax Strategy Problem ... 5-48 Tax Form/Return Preparation Problem ... 5-48 Case Study Problems ... 5-49 Tax Research Problems ... 5-50 CHAPTER 6 CORPORATE LIQUIDATING DISTRIBUTIONS ... 6-1 Overview of Corporate Liquidations ... 6-2 The Shareholder ... 6-2 The Corporation ... 6-3 Definition of a Complete Liquidation ... 6-3 General Liquidation Rules ... 6-5 Effects of Liquidating on the Shareholders ... 6-5 Effects of Liquidating on the Liquidating Corporation ... 6-6 Liquidation of a Controlled Subsidiary Corporation ... 6-10 Requirements ... 6-10 Effects of Liquidating on the Shareholders ... 6-11 Effects of Liquidating on the Subsidiary Corporations ... 6-13 Special Shareholder Reporting Issues ... 6-14 Partially Liquidating Distributions ... 6-14 Subsequent Assessments Against the Shareholders ... 6-15 Open Versus Closed Transactions ... 6-15 Installment Obligationreceived By a Shareholder ... 6-15 Special Corporate Reporting Issues ... 6-16 Expenses of the Liquidation ... 6-16 Treatment of Net Operating Losses ... 6-16 Recognition of Gain or Loss When Property Is Distributed in Retirement of Debt ... 6-17 General Rule ... 6-17 Satisfaction of the Subsidiary Debt Obligations ... 6-17 Tax Planning Considerations ... 6-18 Timing the Liquidation Transaction ... 6-18 Recognition of Ordinary Losses When a Liquidation Occurs ... 6-18 Obtaining 80% Ownership to Achieve Sec. 332 Benefits ... 6-19 Avoiding Sec. 332 to Recognize Losses ... 6-19 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 6-20 General Liquidation Procedures ... 6-20 Section 332 Liquidations ... 6-20 Plan of Liquidation ... 6-21 Problem Materials ... 6-21 Discussion Questions ... 6-21 Issue Identification Questions ... 6-23 Problems ... 6-23 Comprehensive Problem ... 6-29 Tax Strategy Problem ... 6-30 Case Study Problems ... 6-31 Tax Research Problems ... 6-32 CHAPTER 7 CORPORATE ACQUISITIONS AND REORGANIZATIONS ... 7-1 Taxable Acquisition Transactions ... 7-2 Asset Acquisitions ... 7-2 Stock Acquisitions ... 7-4 Comparison of Taxable and Tax-free Acquisitions ... 7-11 Taxable and Tax-Free Asset Acquisitions ... 7-11 Comparison of Taxable and Tax-Free Stock Acquisitions ... 7-12 Types of Reorganizations ... 7-15 Tax Consequences of Reorganizations ... 7-16 Target or Transferor Corporation ... 7-16 Acquiring or Transferee Corporation ... 7-17 Shareholders and Security Holders ... 7-18 Acquisitive Reorganizations ... 7-21 Type A Reorganization ... 7-21 Type C Reorganization ... 7-28 Type D Reorganization ... 7-30 Type B Reorganization ... 7-31 Type G Reorganization ... 7-35 Divisive Reorganizations ... 7-35 Divisive Type D Reorganization ... 7-37 Type G Divisive Reorganization ... 7-41 Other Reorganization Transactions ... 7-41 Type E Reorganization ... 7-41 Type F Reorganization ... 7-43 Judicial Restrictions on The Use of Corporate Reorganizations ... 7-43 Continuity of Proprietary Interest ... 7-43 Continuity of Business Enterprise ... 7-44 Business Purpose Requirement ... 7-45 Step Transaction Doctrine ... 7-45 Tax Attributes ... 7-46 Assumption of Tax Attributes ... 7-46 Limitation on Use of Tax Attributes ... 7-47 Tax Planning Considerations ... 7-49 Why Use a Reorganization Instead of a Taxable Transaction? ... 7-49 Avoiding the Reorganization Provisions ... 7-50 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 7-51 Section 338 Election ... 7-51 Plan of Reorganization ... 7-51 Party to a Reorganization ... 7-51 Ruling Requests ... 7-51 Problem Materials ... 7-52 Discussion Questions ... 7-52 Issue Identification Questions ... 7-53 Problems ... 7-54 Comprehensive Problem ... 7-61 Tax Strategy Problems ... 7-62 Case Study Problems ... 7-63 Tax Research Problems ... 7-64 CHAPTER 8 CONSOLIDATED TAX RETURNS ... 8-1 Source of the Consolidated Tax Return Rules ... 8-2 Definition of an Affiliated Group ... 8-2 Requirements ... 8-2 Comparison with Controlled Group Definitions ... 8-4 Should a Consolidated Return Be Filed? ... 8-4 Advantages of Filing a Consolidated Tax Return ... 8-4 Disadvantages of Filing a Consolidated Tax Return ... 8-5 Consolidated Taxable Income ... 8-5 Income Included in the Consolidated Tax Return ... 8-7 Affiliated Group Elections ... 8-8 Termination of the Affiliated Group ... 8-8 Computation of the Affiliated Groupus Tax Liability ... 8-9 Regular Tax Liability ... 8-9 Corporate Alternative Minimum Tax Liability ... 8-10 Consolidated Tax Credits ... 8-10 Intercompany Transactions ... 8-11 Property Transactions ... 8-12 Other Intercompany Transactions ... 8-18 Dividends Received By Group Members ... 8-21 Exclusion Procedure ... 8-21 Consolidated Dividends-Received Deduction ... 8-21 Consolidated Charitable Contributions Deduction ... 8-22 Net Operating Losses (NOLs) ... 8-23 Current Year NOLs ... 8-23 Carrybacks and Carryforwards of Consolidated NOLs ... 8-24 Carryback of Consolidated NOL to Separate Return Year ... 8-24 Carryforward of Consolidated NOL to Separate Return Year ... 8-26 Special Loss Limitations ... 8-27 Consolidated Capital Gains and Losses ... 8-32 Section 1231 Gains and Losses ... 8-32 Capital Gains and Losses ... 8-32 Stock Basis Adjustments ... 8-33 Tax Planning Considerations ... 8-35 100% Dividends-Received Deduction Election ... 8-35 Estimated Tax Payments ... 8-35 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 8-36 The Basic Election and Return ... 8-36 Parent Corporation as Agent for the Affiliated Group ... 8-37 Liability for Taxes Due ... 8-38 Problem Materials ... 8-38 Discussion Questions ... 8-38 Issue Identification Questions ... 8-40 Problems ... 8-41 Comprehensive Problem ... 8-46 Tax Strategy Problem ... 8-46 Tax Form/Return Preparation Problem ... 8-46 Case Study Problems ... 8-48 Tax Research Problems ... 8-48 CHAPTER 9 PARTNERSHIP FORMATION AND OPERATION ... 9-1 Definition of a Partnership ... 9-2 General and Limited Partnerships ... 9-2 Overview of Taxation of Partnership Income ... 9-4 Partnership Profits and Losses ... 9-4 The Partnerus Basis ... 9-4 Partnership Distributions ... 9-5 Tax Implications of Formation of a Partnership ... 9-5 Contribution of Property ... 9-5 Contribution of Services ... 9-10 Organizational and Syndication Expenditures ... 9-12 Partnership Elections ... 9-12 Partnership Tax Year ... 9-12 Other Partnership Elections ... 9-15 Partnership Reporting of Income ... 9-16 Partnership Taxable Income ... 9-16 Separately Stated Items ... 9-16 Partnership Ordinary Items ... 9-17 Partner Reporting of Income ... 9-17 Partnerus Distributive Share ... 9-17 Special Allocations ... 9-18 Basis for Partnership Interest ... 9-21 Beginning Basis ... 9-21 Effects of Liabilities ... 9-21 Effects of Operations ... 9-23 Special Loss Limitations ... 9-24 At-Risk Loss Limitation ... 9-24 Passive Activity Limitations ... 9-26 Transactions Between a Partner and the Partnership ... 9-26 Sales of Property ... 9-26 Guaranteed Payments ... 9-27 Family Partnerships ... 9-29 Capital Ownership ... 9-29 Donor-Donee Allocations of Income ... 9-30 Tax Planning Considerations ... 9-30 Timing of Loss Recognition ... 9-30 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 9-31 Reporting to the IRS and the Partners ... 9-31 Irs Audit Procedures ... 9-32 Problem Materials ... 9-33 Discussion Questions ... 9-33 Issue Identification Questions ... 9-34 Problems ... 9-35 Comprehensive Problem ... 9-43 Tax Strategy Problem ... 9-43 Tax Form/Return Preparation Problem ... 9-44 Case Study Problems ... 9-45 Tax Research Problems ... 9-47 CHAPTER 10 SPECIAL PARTNERSHIP ISSUES ... 10-1 Nonliquidating Distributions ... 10-2 Recognition of Gain ... 10-2 Basis Effects of Distributions ... 10-4 Holding Period and Character of Distributed Property ... 10-7 Nonliquidating Distributions with Sec. 751 ... 10-7 Section 751 Assets Defined ... 10-7 Exchange of Sec. 751 Assets and Other Property ... 10-9 Terminating an Interest in A Partnership ... 10-1 Liquidating Distributions ... 10-1 Sale of a Partnership Interest ... 10-1 Retirement or Death of a Partner ... 10-1 Exchange of a Partnership Interest ... 10-2 Income Recognition and Transfers of a Partnership Interest ... 10-2 Termination of a Partnership ... 10-2 Mergers and Consolidations ... 10-2 Division of a Partnership ... 10-2 Optional Basis Adjustments ... 10-2 Optional Adjustment on Transfers ... 10-2 Optional Adjustment on Distributions ... 10-2 Special Forms of Partnerships ... 10-2 Tax Shelters and Limited Partnerships ... 10-2 Publicly Traded Partnerships ... 10-2 Limited Liability Companies ... 10-2 Limited Liability Partnerships ... 10-2 Electing Large Partnerships ... 10-3 Tax Planning Considerations ... 33 Liquidating Distribution or Sale to Partners ... 10-3 Problem Materials ... 10-3 Discussion Questions ... 10-3 Issue Identification Questions ... 10-3 Problems ... 10-3 Comprehensive Problem ... 10-4 Tax Strategy Problem ... 10-4 Case Study Problems ... 10-4 Tax Research Problems ... 10-4 CHAPTER 11 S CORPORATIONS ... 11-1 Should an S Election Be Made? ... 11-3 Advantages of S Corporation Treatment ... 11-3 Disadvantages of S Corporation Treatment ... 11-3 S Corporation Requirements ... 11-4 Shareholder-Related Requirements ... 11-4 Corporation-Related Requirements ... 11-5 Election of S Corporation Status ... 11-7 Making the Election ... 11-8 Termination of the Election ... 11-9 S Corporation Operations ... 11-1 Taxable Year ... 11-1 Accounting Method Elections ... 11-1 Ordinary Income or Loss and Separately Stated Items ... 11-1 Special S Corporation Taxes ... 11-1 Taxation of the Shareholder ... 11-1 Income Allocation Procedures ... 11-1 Loss and Deduction Pass-Through to Shareholders ... 11-2 Family S Corporations ... 11-2 Basis Adjustments ... 11-2 Basis Adjustments to S Corporation Stock ... 11-2 Basis Adjustments to Shareholder Debt ... 11-2 S Corporation Distributions ... 11-2 Corporations Having No Earnings and Profits ... 11-2 Corporations Having Accumulated Earnings and Profits ... 11-2 Other Rules ... 11-3 Tax Preference Items and Other AMT Adjustments ... 11-3 Transactions Involving Shareholders and Other Related Parties ... 11-3 Fringe Benefits Paid to a Shareholder-employee ... 11-3 Tax Planning Considerations ... 11-3 Election to Allocate Income Based on the S Corporationus Accounting Method ... 11-3 Increasing the Benefits from S Corporation Losses ... 11-3 Passive Income Requirements ... 11-3 Compliance and Procedural Considerations ... 11-3 Making the Election ... 11-3 Filing the Corporate Tax Return ... 11-3 Estimated Tax Payments ... 11-3 Consistency Rules ... 11-3 Sample S Corporation Tax Return ... 11-3 Problem Materials ... 11-3 Discussion Questions ... 11-3 Issue Identification Questions ... 11-4 Problems ... 11-4 Comprehensive Problem ... 11-4 Tax Strategy Problem ... 11-4 Tax Form/Return Preparation Problem ... 11-5 Case Study Problems ... 11-5 Tax Research Problems ... 11-5 CHAPTER 12 THE GIFT TAX ... 12-1 Concept of Transfer Taxes ... 12-2 History and Purpose of Transfer Taxes ... 12-2 The Unified Transfer Tax System ... 12-3 Unified Rate Schedule ... 12-3 Impact of Taxable Gifts on Death Tax Base ... 12-3 Unified Credit ... 12-4 Gift Tax Formula ... 12-4 Determination of Gifts ... 12-4 Exclusions and Deductions ... 12-4 Gift-Splitting Election ... 12-5 Cumulative Nature of Gift Tax ... 12-6 Unified Credit ... 12-6 Transfer Subject to the Gift Tax ... 12-7 Transfers for Inadequate Considerations ... 12-7 Statutory Exemptions from the Gift Tax ... 12-8 Cessation of Donorus Dominion and Control ... 12-1 Valuation of Gifts ... 12-1 Gift Tax Consequences of Certain Transfers ... 12-1 Exclusions ... 12-1 Amount of the Exclusion ... 12-1 Present Interest Requirement ... 12-1 Gift Tax Deductions ... 12-1 Marital Deduction ... 12-1 Charitable Contribution Deduction ... 12-2 The Gift-splitting Election ... 12-2 Computation of the Gift Tax Liability ... 12-2 Effect of Previous Taxable Gifts ... 12-2 Effect of Previous Taxable Gifts ... 12-2 Comprehensive Illustration ... 12-2 Background Data ... 12-2 Calculation of Tax Liability ... 12-2 Basis Considerations for a Lifetime Giving Plan ... 12-2 Property Received By Gift ... 12-6 Property Received At Death ... 12-2 Below-market Loans : Gift and Income Tax Consequences ... 12-2 General Rules ... 12-2 De Minimis Rules ... 12-2 Tax Planning Considerations ... 12-2 Tax-saving Features of Inter Vivos Gifts ... 12-2 Negative Aspects of Gifts ... 12-3 Compliance