CONTENTS Preface ... xvii Part 1 The Correctional Context ... 3 Chapter 1 The Corrections System ... 4 The Purpose of Corrections ... 7 A Systems Framework for Understanding Corrections ... 8 Goals ... 8 Interconnectedness ... 8 Environment ... 10 Feedback ... 10 Complexity ... 10 The Corrections System Today ... 11 Key lssues in Corrections ... 15 Managing the Correctional Organization ... 15 Working with Offenders ... 19 Connecting Corrections and Social Relations ... 21 Summary ... 21 Chapter 2 The Early History of Correctional Thought and Practice ... 23 From the Middle Ages to the American Revolution ... 24 Galley Slavery ... 26 Imprisonment ... 26 Transportation ... 27 Corporal Punishment and Death ... 28 On the Eve of Reform ... 29 The Age of Reason and Correctional Reform ... 29 Cesare Beccaria and the Classical School ... 30 Jeremy Bentham and the "Hedonic Calculus" ... 31 John Howard and the Birth of the Penitentiary ... 31 What Really Motivated Correctional Reform? ... 33 Summary ... 33 Chapter 3 The History of Corrections in America ... 35 The Colonial Period ... 36 The Arrival of the Penitentiary ... 37 The Pennsylvania System ... 38 The New York System ... 40 Debating the Systems ... 40 The Reformatory Movement ... 42 Cincinnati, 1870 ... 43 Elmira Reformatory ... 44 Lasting Reforms ... 44 The Rise of the Progressives ... 44 Individualized Treatment and the Positivist School ... 45 Progressive Reforms ... 46 The Rise of the Medical Model ... 47 From Medical Model to Community Model ... 49 The Crime Control Model : The Pendulum Swings Again ... 49 The Decline of Rehabilitation ... 50 The Emergence of Crime Control ... 50 Where Are We Today? ... 50 Summary ... 52 Chapter 4 The Punishment of Offenders ... 54 The Purpose of Corrections ... 55 Retribution(Deserved Punishment) ... 56 Deterrence ... 57 Incapacitation ... 58 Rehabilitation ... 59 New Approaches to Punishment ... 60 Criminal Sanctions : A Mixed Bag? ... 61 Forms of the Criminal Sanction ... 62 Incarceration ... 63 Intermediate Sanctions ... 67 Probation ... 69 Death ... 69 Forms and Goals of Sanctions ... 70 The Sentencing Process ... 70 The Administrative Context ... 72 Attitudes and Values of Judges ... 74 The Presentence Report ... 76 Sentencing Guidelines ... 76 Who Gets the Harshest Punishment? ... 78 Summary ... 80 Chapter 5 The Law of Corrections ... 83 The Foundations of Correctional Law ... 85 Constitutions ... 85 Statutes ... 86 Case Law ... 87 Regulations ... 87 Correctional Law and the U.S. Supreme Court ... 88 The End of the Hands-Off Policy ... 88 Access to the Courts ... 89 The Prisoners' Rights Movement ... 90 Constitutional Rights of Prisoners ... 90 The First Amendment ... 92 The Fourth Amendment ... 94 The Eighth Amendment ... 94 The Fourteenth Amendment ... 98 A Change in Judicial Direction ... 99 Impact of the Prisoners' Rights Movement ... 101 Alternatives to Litigation ... 101 Inmate Grievance Procedures ... 102 The Ombudsman ... 102 Mediation ... 102 Legal Assistance ... 103 Law and Community Corrections ... 103 Constitutional Rights of Probationers and Parolees ... 103 Revocation of Probation and Parole ... 104 Law and Corrections Personnel ... 105 Civil Service Laws ... 105 Liability of Corrections Personnel ... 105 Summary ... 106 Chapter 6 The Correctional Client ... 110 Selection for the Corrections System ... 111 Types of Offenders and Their Problems ... 113 The Situational Offender ... 113 The Career Criminal ... 115 The Sex Offender ... 117 The Substance Abuser ... 119 The Mentally Ⅲ Offender ... 123 The Mentally Handicapped Offender ... 126 The Offender with AIDS ... 128 The Elderly Offender ... 130 The Long-Term Offender ... 132 Classifying Offenders : Key Issues ... 132 Overlap and Ambiguity in Offender Classifications ... 133 Offense Classifications and Correctional Programming ... 134 Behavioral Probabilities in Classification ... 134 Sociopolitical Pressures and Classification ... 134 Distinctions in the Criteria for Classifying Offenders ... 135 Summary ... 135 Part 2 Correctional Practices ... 139 Chapter 7 Jails : Detention and Short-Term Incarceration ... 140 The Contemporary Jail : Entrance to the System ... 142 Origins and Evolution ... 142 Population Characteristics ... 143 Administration ... 144 The Influence of Local Politics ... 146 Regional Jails ... 146 Pretrial Detention ... 146 Special Problems of Detainees ... 150 Release from Detention ... 153 The Bail Problem ... 155 Alternatives to Traditional Bail ... 155 The Sentenced jail Inmate ... 157 lssues in Jail Management ... 157 Legal Liability ... 157 Jail Standards ... 158 Personnel Matters ... 158 Jail Crowding ... 159 The Jail Facility ... 160 The Future of the Jail ... 163 Summary ... 163 Chapter 8 Probation ... 166 The History and Development of Probation ... 168 Benefit of Clergy ... 168 Judicial Reprieve ... 168 Recognizance ... 169 The Modernization of Probation ... 179 The Organization of Probation Today ... 171 Should Probation Be Centralized or Decentralized? ... 171 Who Should Administer Probation? ... 174 Should Probation Be Combined with Parole? ... 175 The Dual Role of Probation : Investigation and Supervision ... 175 The Investigative Role of Probation ... 176 Contents of the PSI ... 177 Recommendations of the PSI ... 182 Disclosure of the PSI ... 182 Private PSIs ... 183 The Supervisory Role of Probation ... 183 The Officer ... 184 The Offender ... 185 The Bureaucracy ... 185 The Effectiveness of Supervision ... 187 Case Management Systems ... 188 Specialized Supervision Programs ... 189 Revocation and Termination of Probation ... 191 Probation in the Coming Decade ... 193 Summary ... 195 Chapter 9 Intermediate Sanctions and Community Corrections ... 197 The Case for Intermediate Sanctions ... 199 Unnecessary Imprisonment ... 199 Limitations of Probation ... 200 Improvements in Justice ... 200 The Continuum-of-Sanctions Concept ... 200 Problems with Intermediate Sanctions ... 201 Selecting Agencies ... 201 Selecting Offenders ... 202 Widening the Net ... 204 Varieties of Intermediate Sanctions ... 204 Sanctions Administered Primarily by the Judiciary ... 204 Sanctions Administered in the Community ... 207 Sanctions Administered in Institutions and the Community ... 209 Making Intermediate Sanctions Work ... 211 Sentencing Issues ... 211 Selection of Offenders ... 212 Surveillance and Control ... 213 The New Corrections Professional ... 214 Community Corrections Legislation ... 215 The Future of Intermediate Sanctions and Community Corrections ... 219 Summary ... 220 Chapter 10 Incarceration ... 223 Links to the Past ... 224 The Goals of Incarceration ... 227 Organization for Incarceration ... 228 Federal Bureau of Prisons ... 228 State Prison Systems ... 232 The Design and Classification of Prisons ... 232 Today's Designs ... 234 The Location of Prisons ... 235 The Classification of Prisons ... 236 Private Prisons ... 238 Who Is in Prison? ... 240 Elderly Prisoners ... 240 Prisoners with HIV／AIDS ... 241 Long-Term Inmates ... 243 Summary ... 243 Chapter 11 The Prison Experience ... 246 Prison Society ... 247 Norms and Values ... 249 Prison Subculture : Deprivation or Imported? ... 252 Adaptive Roles ... 253 The Prison Economy ... 254 Violence in Prison ... 255 Violence and Inmate Characteristics ... 258 Prisoner-Prisoner Violence ... 259 Prisoner-Officer Violence ... 261 Officer-Prisoner Violence ... 262 Decreasing Prison Violence ... 262 Summary ... 264 Chapter 12 Incarceration of Women ... 267 Women : Forgotten Offenders ... 268 Historical Perspective ... 270 The Incarceration of Women in the United States ... 271 The Reformatory Movement ... 272 The Post-World War Ⅱ Years ... 273 Women in Prison ... 275 Characteristics of Women in Prison ... 275 The Subculture of Women's Prisons ... 278 Male versus Female Subcultures ... 280 Issues in the Incarceration of Women ... 281 Educational and Vocational Training Programs ... 282 Medical Services ... 282 Mothers and Their Children ... 283 Release to the Community ... 285 Summary ... 286 Chapter 13 Institutional Management ... 289 Formal Organization ... 291 The Organizational Structure ... 292 The Impact of the Structure ... 295 Governing Prisons ... 296 The Defects of Total Power ... 298 Rewards and Punishments ... 299 Co-optation of Correctional Officers ... 299 Inmate Leadership ... 300 Discipline Prisoners ... 300 Leadership : The Crucial Element of Governance ... 302 Correctional Officers : The Linchpin of Management ... 304 Who Becomes a Correctional Officer? ... 304 Role Characteristics ... 308 Job Assignments ... 309 Use of Force ... 311 Unionization ... 312 Summary ... 313 Chapter 14 Institutional Programs ... 316 Managing Time ... 317 Constraints of Security ... 318 The Principle of Least Eligibility ... 319 Classification ... 320 The Classification Process ... 320 Objective Classification Systems ... 322 Rehabilitative Programs ... 323 Psychological Programs ... 323 Behavior Therapy ... 326 Social Therapy ... 326 Vocational Rehabilitation ... 328 Vocational Programs ... 330 Substance Abuse Programs ... 330 Religious Programs ... 331 The Rediscovery of Correctional Rehabilitation ... 332 Prison Industry ... 332 The Contract Labor, Piece Price, and Lease Systems ... 333 The Public Account System ... 333 The State Use System ... 335 The Public Works and Ways System ... 335 Prison Industry Today ... 335 Prison Maintenance Programs ... 337 Prison Recreation Programs ... 339 Prison Programming Reconsidered ... 340 Summary ... 340 Chapter 15 Release from Incarceration ... 343 Release : From One Part of the System to Another ... 345 Origins of Parole ... 346 Release Mechanisms ... 348 Discretionary Release ... 348 Mandatory Release ... 348 Unconditional Release ... 349 The Organization of Releasing Authorities ... 349 Consolidated versus Autonomous ... 349 Field Services ... 349 Full-Time versus Part-Time ... 350 Appointment ... 351 The Decision to Release ... 351 Discretionary Release ... 352 Structuring Parole Decisions ... 356 The Impact of Release Mechanisms ... 356 Release to the Community ... 359 Summary ... 360 Chapter 16 Making It : Supervision in the Community ... 363 Overview of the Postrelease Function ... 364 Community Supervision ... 365 Revocation ... 366 The Structure of Community Supervision ... 368 Agents of Community Supervision ... 370 The Community Supervision Bureaucracy ... 372 Residential Programs ... 375 The Offender's Experience of Postrelease Life ... 377 The Strangeness of Reentry ... 377 The Problem of Unmet Personal Needs ... 377 Barriers to Success ... 377 Making It as a Game ... 381 The Parolee as "Dangerous" ... 383 Postrelease Supervision ... 386 How Effective Is It? ... 386 What Are Its Prospects? ... 390 Summary ... 390 Chapter 17 Corrections for Juvenile Offenders ... 393 The Problem of Youth Crime ... 394 History of Juvenile Corrections ... 394 Juvenile Corrections : English Antecedents ... 395 Juvenile Corrections in the United States ... 395 Why Treat Juveniles and Adults Differently? ... 399 Differences Between Adults and Juveniles in Perspective ... 401 The Problem of serious Delinquency ... 402 Sanctioning Juvenile Offenders ... 403 Overview of the Juvenile Justice System ... 403 Disposition of Juvenile Offenders ... 405 The Special Problem of Gangs ... 414 The Future of Juvenile Justice ... 414 Summary ... 415 Part 3 Correctional Issues and Perspectives ... 419 Chapter 18 Incarceration Trends ... 420 Explaining Prison Population Trends ... 421 Demographic Change ... 423 Increased Arrests and More Likely Incarceration ... 424 Tougher Sentencing Practices ... 424 Prison Construction ... 426 The War on Drugs ... 426 Public Policy Trends ... 426 Dealing with the Prison Population Crisis ... 427 The Null Strategy ... 427 The Construction Strategy ... 428 Intermediate Sanctions ... 428 Prison Population Reduction ... 429 The Impact of Prison Crowding ... 429 Does Incarceration Pay? ... 430 Summary ... 433 Chapter 19 Race, Ethnicity, and Corrections ... 436 The Concepts of Race and Ethnicity ... 438 Visions of Race and Punishment ... 439 The View of Differential Criminality ... 439 The View of a Racist Criminal Justice System ... 441 The View of a Racist Society ... 444 Which is it : Race or Racism? ... 446 The Significance of Race and Punishment ... 446 Summary ... 447 Chapter 20 The Death Penalty ... 450 The Debate over Capital Punishment ... 452 The Death Penalty in America ... 453 Death Row Population ... 453 Public Opinion ... 454 The Death Penalty and the Constitution ... 456 Key Supreme Court Decisions ... 456 Continuing Legal Issues ... 457 Who is on Death Row? ... 461 Who Are They? ... 461 Where Was the Crime Committed? ... 461 Who Was the Prosecutor? ... 462 Was Race a Factor? ... 463 A Continuing Debate? ... 464 Summary ... 467 Chapter 21 Surveillance and Control in the Community ... 471 The Goals of surveillance ... 473 The Techniques of Surveillance and control ... 474 Drug Controls ... 475 Electronic Controls ... 475 Human Surveillance ... 477 Programmatic Controls ... 477 Control : A Double-Edged Sword ... 477 Social Control and Personal Liberty ... 478 The Politics of Surveillance and Community Protection ... 478 The Limits of Control ... 479 Technology ... 480 Human Responses ... 480 Moral and Ethical Limits ... 480 Toward an Acceptable Community Control ... 481 Summary ... 481 Chapter 22 Community Justice ... 483 What Is Community Justice, and How Does It Differ from Criminal Justice? ... 485 What Is Community Justice? ... 485 How Is Community Justice Different? ... 487 What Are the Arguments for Community Justice? ... 489 Crime and Crime Problems Are Local ... 489 Crime Fighting Improves the Quality of Life ... 491 Proactive Rather Than Reactive Strategies Are Needed ... 492 What Are the Problems of Community Justice? ... 492 Community Justice and Individual Rights ... 492 Community Justice and Social Inequality ... 494 Community Justice and Increasing Criminal Justice Costs ... 494 The Future Prospects of Community Justice ... 495 Summary ... 495 Epilogue American Corrections Today and Tomorrow ... 497 Five Correctional Dilemmas ... 498 Mission ... 498 Methods ... 499 Structure ... 500 Personnel ... 501 Costs ... 502 Changing Corrections : A Final View ... 502 Appendix Career Opportunities in Corrections ... 504 Glossary ... 509 Index ... 517 Photo Credits ... 535