CONTENTS PREFACE ... xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... xv 1 : POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS : AN OVERVIEW ... 1 The Police-Community Environment ... 2 Defining Police-Community Relations ... 3 Acceptance of the Concept of Police-Community Relations ... 4 Acceptance as a Sign of Progress ... 4 Tight Finances and Their Effects ... 5 A Historical Perspective ... 5 Selling the Police to the People ... 7 Internalizing Community Relations ... 14 Systems and Communities ... 16 The Many Communities in Community Relations ... 18 Conclusions ... 20 2 : PUBLIC RELATIONS AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS : A CONTRAST ... 26 Public Relations and / or Community Relations ... 27 Common Framework for Analyzing Community and Public Relations ... 30 Processes Involved in the Activity ... 32 Citizen Involvement ... 35 Program Examples ... 38 Conclusions ... 45 3 : COMMUNITY POLICING ... 57 The Police in the United States ... 58 The Evolution of Police Service Models ... 59 The Development of Community Police Models ... 63 The Current Status of Community Policing ... 68 Community Policing Applications ... 71 Recommendations for Implementing Community Policing ... 76 Conclusions ... 79 4 : THE PUBLIC AND THE POLICE : A CONSORTIUM OF COMMUNITIES ... 83 The External Communities ... 85 The Internal Communities ... 94 Conclusions ... 96 5 : RELATIONS WITHIN THE POLICE ORGANIZATION ... 103 Life Inside a Police Organization ... 104 The Formal Organization ... 104 Organizational Units ... 107 The Informal Organization ... 111 Police Organizational Considerations ... 112 Dealing with Other Employees ... 116 Dealing with Subordinates ... 118 Dealing with Peers ... 120 Conclusions ... 121 6 : POLICE ROLE CONCEPT IN A CHANGING SOCIETY ... 125 Great Expectations ... 126 Perception ... 127 Role Concept ... 132 The Police Officer's Role ... 133 Police Role Conflict ... 136 Formation of Role Concepts ... 137 The Media and Role Concepts ... 139 Factors and Conditions of Change ... 140 The Paradoxes of Police Practice ... 143 Toward a Realistic Role Concept ... 144 Toward a Congruent Role ... 145 Elements of Change ... 145 Criteria for Change ... 147 Policing in a Changing Society ... 147 Conclusions ... 149 7 : COPING WITH THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE OF BEING A COP ... 154 Change and the Police ... 155 What Policing Does to the Police ... 156 The Social Hazards of Policing ... 157 Health Hazards ... 161 Coping with Being a Cop ... 168 Conclusions ... 173 8 : THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ... 177 Communication in Action ... 178 The Process of Communication ... 179 Modes of Interpersonal Communication ... 181 Verbal and Paralanguage Cues ... 182 Kinesics and Proxemics Cues ... 186 Symbolic Cues ... 190 Official Communication ... 191 Effective Listening ... 191 Empathy ... 193 Blocks to Effective Communication ... 194 Strategies of Change ... 199 Conclusions ... 201 9 : POLICE DISCRETION AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS ... 207 Discretion in the System ... 208 Selective and Discriminatory Enforcement ... 210 Decision Making at an Administrative Level ... 212 Decision Making at an Operational Level ... 214 Justifications for Selective Enforcement ... 216 The Question of Professionalism ... 220 Legal Authority for Selective Enforcement ... 221 Writs of Mandamus ... 223 Selective Enforcement and Appropriate Guidelines ... 224 Structuring Police Discretion ... 226 Looking Toward Tomorrow ... 228 Conclusions ... 229 10 : THE MEDIA LINK ... 234 Massive Media Impact ... 235 Community Relations Context ... 236 Commitment to Crime Coverage ... 236 Exploitation of Crime News ... 238 Public Reaction to Media Coverage ... 239 Conflict Between Media and Police ... 241 A Clear Need for Guidelines ... 243 Setting Guidelines ... 252 Ongoing Problems ... 257 Strategies for the Future ... 257 New Mutual Goals ... 261 Conclusions ... 262 11 : SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND THE POLICE ... 268 Special Problems for the Police ... 269 Understanding the Young ... 270 Understanding the Elderly ... 273 Understanding the Disabled ... 277 Youth, the Elderly, and the Disabled : Shared Problems ... 283 Youth, the Elderly, and the Disabled : A Few Contrasts ... 289 The Problems with Programs ... 290 A New Approach ... 291 Conclusions ... 294 12 : COMMUNITY RELATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF CULTURE ... 300 The Cultural Context of Community Relations ... 302 Cross-Cultural Factors ... 306 Improving Community Relations in the Context of Culture ... 324 Conclusions ... 329 13 : THE DILEMMAS OF DISSENT AND POLITICAL RESPONSE ... 334 Dissent : Catalyst of Progress ... 335 Arenas for Dissent ... 341 Strategies of Dissent and Response ... 344 Escalation and De-escalation of Conflict ... 349 Outcomes ... 352 The Battle of Seattle ... 359 Conclusions ... 362 14 : CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ... 366 Maintaining an Orderly Community ... 367 Crisis Negotiations ... 368 A Broader Concept ... 370 Conflict Intervention at the Community Level ... 378 Conclusions ... 380 15 : COMMUNITY CONTROL : A CONTINUUM OF PARTICIPATION ... 384 The Concept of Community Control ... 385 Development of Community Control ... 387 Systems and Community Values ... 389 Two Types of Community Control ... 391 Conclusions ... 400 16 : POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM ... 403 World and National Events ... 404 Improving Police Community Relations in the New Millennium ... 406 Choosing a Community-Specific Strategy ... 407 Conclusions ... 408 Appendix : Case Studies ... 411 Index ... 417