CONTENTS Preface ... xvii PART ONE : THE SUPERVISOR IN A POLICE ORGANIZATION ... 1 Chapter1 The Dynamics of Police Organizations ... 3 Learning Objectives ... 3 Introduction ... 4 The Concept of Organizations ... 4 The Evolution of Organizational Theory ... 5 Scientific Management ... 6 Bureaucratic Management ... 6 Administrative Theory ... 10 POSDCORB ... 10 Unity of Command ... 12 Span of Control ... 13 Policies, Procedures, and Rules and Regulations ... 13 The Emergence of Humanism ... 15 McGregor's Theory X／Theory Y ... 16 The Systems Approach ... 18 Rationales and Purposes of Police Organizational Design ... 19 Factors That Influence Organization ... 21 The Informal Organization ... 21 Police Culture and Inertia ... 21 Employee Organizations and Unions ... 23 Contemporary Approaches : Community Policing and Problem Solving ... 23 New Philosophy and Practices ... 23 A Case Study in Change : Hayward, California ... 24 Summary ... 25 Items for Review ... 26 References ... 26 Chapter2 Role and Responsibilities ... 28 Learning Objectives ... 28 Introduction ... 29 The Supervisory Role ... 30 A Complex Position ... 30 Police Supervisory Tasks ... 33 Types of Supervisors ... 35 The Manager's Role ... 36 Getting That First Promotion : Assuming the Supervisory Role ... 39 Seeking Promotion ... 39 Obtaining Promotion ... 40 Differences by Agency Size ... 42 Supervision of Patrol Officers ... 45 The Police Culture ... 46 The Ideal Versus the Real ... 47 Managing and Supervising Police Operations ... 49 Patrol ... 49 Criminal Investigations ... 50 Other Responsibilities ... 52 Case Studies ... 54 Summary ... 55 Items for Review ... 56 References ... 56 Chapter3 Leadership and Motivation Within the Police Organization ... 58 Learning Objectives ... 58 Introduction ... 59 Supervisors and Managers as Leaders ... 60 A Problem of Definition ... 60 Developing Leadership Skills ... 61 Power, Authority, and Leadership ... 62 Motivation Theory ... 64 Toward Attaining Goals ... 64 Content Theories ... 65 Process Theories ... 71 Leading Versus Managing ... 73 Leadership Theories ... 74 Trait Theory ... 74 Behavioral Theories ... 75 Situational Leadership ... 78 Contingency Theory ... 79 Transformational Leadership ... 80 Power and Leadership ... 81 Leadership Styles ... 82 Likert's Leadership System ... 83 Downs's Bureaucratic Leadership Styles ... 86 Station House Sergeants and Street Sergeants ... 87 When Leaders Adopt a Customer Focus ... 88 Team Building ... 90 Why Teamwork? ... 90 Building a Successful Team ... 90 Why Leaders Fail ... 91 Case Studies ... 94 Summary ... 95 Items for Review ... 96 References ... 96 Chapter4 Communication and Negotiation ... 98 Learning Objectives ... 98 Introduction ... 99 The Act of Communicating ... 100 A Large Part of the Workday ... 100 The Communication Process ... 100 Formal and Informal Communication ... 102 Barriers to Effective Communication ... 104 Perceptual Problems ... 105 Physical Barriers ... 105 Improving Communication in Police Agencies ... 107 The Art of Negotiating ... 107 Definition and Function ... 107 Approaches to Negotiating ... 108 The Prenegotiation Stage ... 109 Personal Factors Affecting Negotiations ... 109 Negotiation Tactics ... 110 Guidelines for Conducting Negotiations ... 111 Negotiation by Police Managers and Supervisors ... 112 Coping with Conflict ... 113 The Nature of Organizational Conflict ... 113 Levels of Conflict ... 114 Sources of Conflict in Police Organizations ... 116 Case Studies ... 122 Summary ... 124 Items for Review ... 124 References ... 125 PART TWO : SUPERVISING HUMAN RESOURCES ... 127 Chapter5 Training and Professional Development ... 129 Learning Objectives ... 129 Introduction ... 130 Rationale and Types of Training ... 130 Contemporary Police Training : Roles of Supervisors and Managers ... 131 Methods of Police Instruction ... 132 Basic or Academy Training ... 132 Problem-Based Learning ... 138 Field Training Officer Programs ... 138 Roll Call Training ... 143 In-Service Training ... 143 Assessing Training Needs ... 144 Materials and Teaching Aids ... 148 Supervisory and Management Professional Development ... 151 Requisite Skills ... 151 Training ... 152 Higher Education ... 155 Literature ... 155 Professional Organizations ... 157 The Superior Officer as Trainer ... 158 Liability Issues ... 159 Case Studies ... 160 Summary ... 163 Items for Review ... 163 References ... 164 Chapter6 Evaluation Methods and Performance Appraisal ... 166 Learning Objectives ... 166 Introduction ... 167 Productivity Measurement ... 168 What Is Productivity? ... 168 Traditional Views ... 171 Planning and Problem Solving ... 173 Performance Appraisal ... 175 Rationale and Purposes ... 176 Overview of Performance Appraisal ... 179 Defining Rating Criteria ... 180 Choosing Among Rating Forms ... 181 Appraisal in Action : Commanding Officers Under New York City's COMPSTAT Program ... 185 Community Policing and Performance Appraisal ... 186 Improving Rater Performance ... 186 Rater Errors ... 188 Rater Training ... 189 Different Approaches to Appraisal ... 191 Using Peer and Self-Evaluations ... 191 Subordinate Appraisal of Supervisors ... 192 Providing Appraisal Feedback ... 193 Effectiveness of Performance Appraisals ... 194 What Works? Reasons for Ineffectiveness ... 194 Performance Targeting ... 195 Case Studies ... 195 Summary ... 197 Items for Review ... 198 References ... 198 Chapter7 Stress, Wellness, and Employee Assistance Programs ... 201 Learning Objectives ... 201 Introduction ... 202 Understanding Police Stress ... 203 Dimensions and Process ... 203 Patterns During a Career ... 205 Sources of Police Stress ... 207 Organizational Sources ... 207 The Criminal Justice System ... 208 The Public ... 209 Stressors Intrinsic to Police Work ... 209 Dealing with Stress ... 211 Potential Officer Afflictions ... 211 Negative Effects on the Agency ... 213 Social Support Systems ... 213 Employee Wellness Programs ... 214 Employee Assistance Programs ... 215 Alcohol Abuse and Counseling ... 216 Drug Abuse and Counseling ... 217 In Brief : How Supervisors and Managers Can Help ... 218 Case Studies ... 219 Summary ... 221 Items for Review ... 221 References ... 221 Chapter8 Ethics, Inappropriate Behaviors, and Liability ... 223 Learning Objectives ... 223 Introduction ... 224 Laying the Foundations of Ethics : Two Opening Scenarios ... 225 Does the End Justify the Means? ... 225 You and the Oral Interview ... 225 What Does the Oral Board Want to Hear? ... 225 Ethics, Generally ... 226 Philosophical Foundations ... 226 Types of Ethics ... 227 Challenges for Police Leaders ... 229 Codes of Ethics and Conduct ... 229 The Vital Role of Supervisors and Managers ... 233 Inappropriate Police Behaviors ... 234 Officer Lying and Deception ... 235 Gratuities and Corruption ... 236 Improper Use of Authority and Force ... 239 Improper Sexual Relations ... 244 Sexual Harassment ... 245 Departmental Guidelines ... 246 Civil Liability and Police Supervision ... 247 Case Studies ... 250 Summary ... 251 Items for Review ... 252 References ... 252 Chapter9 Officers' Rights, Discipline, and Appeals ... 254 Learning Objectives ... 254 Introduction ... 255 Officers' Rights and Limitations ... 256 Peace Officers Bill of Rights ... 256 Free Speech ... 257 Searches and Seizures ... 257 Self-Incrimination ... 258 Religious Practices ... 258 Sexual Misconduct ... 259 Residency Requirements ... 259 Moonlighting ... 260 Misuse of Firearms ... 260 Alcohol and Drug Testing in the Workplace ... 261 Disciplinary Policies and Practices ... 262 A Tradition of Problems ... 262 The Need for Policies and Guidelines ... 263 When Trouble Happens : The Nature and Investigation of Complaints ... 264 Complaint Origin ... 264 Types and Receipt ... 265 The Supervisor's Role in Internal Affairs Investigations ... 267 Determination and Disposition ... 268 Level and Nature of Action ... 270 Grievances and Appeals ... 272 Formally Processing Grievances ... 272 Appealing Disciplinary Measures ... 274 Responding to Problem Officers : The Early Warning System ... 275 Purposes and Functions ... 275 Benefits and Potential Drawbacks ... 276 Developing a Preventive Policy ... 278 A "Hot Button" Issue : Racial Profiling ... 279 Legal Considerations ... 281 Case Studies ... 282 Summary ... 283 Items for Review ... 284 References ... 284 PART THREE : SUPERVISION THE WORK OF POLICE ... 287 Chapter10 Deploying and Scheduling Personnel ... 289 Learning Objectives ... 289 Introduction ... 290 Patrol Planning ... 291 Resource Allocation ... 292 Early Research ... 292 Determining Patrol Force Size ... 293 Other Allocation Issues ... 296 Workload Analysis ... 296 Basic Approaches ... 296 Deployment by Time and Location ... 297 Car Plans ... 300 Use of Computer Models ... 301 Alternative Patrol Responses ... 301 Why Respond to Every Call? Seeking Alternatives ... 301 Call Management : Prioritizing Calls for Service ... 304 Other Alternative Responses ... 305 Shift Scheduling ... 307 General Recommendations ... 307 Permanent Versus Rotating Shifts : Advantages and Debilitating Effects ... 308 Assigning Officers to Shifts ... 310 Compressed Work Schedules ... 310 Split and Overlapping Shifts ... 314 Labor Considerations ... 314 Deployment Strategies ... 316 Basic Officer Plan ... 316 Split Force ... 316 Special Units ... 316 Directed Patrol ... 317 Community Policing and Problem Solving ... 317 A Related Consideration : Managing Overtime ... 318 The Influence of Unions ... 319 Case Studies ... 319 Summary ... 321 Items for Review ... 321 References ... 322 Chapter11 On Patrol : Special Problems and Operations ... 324 Learning Objectives ... 324 Introduction ... 325 The Scope of Patrol Operations ... 326 Domestic Violence Situations ... 326 Danger and Liability ... 326 Leadership Rejoinder ... 328 Crimes in Progress ... 328 Lethal Potential ... 328 Leadership Rejoinder ... 330 Street Drug Enforcement ... 330 Drug Related Criminality ... 331 Leadership Rejoinder ... 332 Youth Gangs ... 333 Extent, Nature, Activities ... 333 Leadership Rejoinder ... 335 Societal Responses ... 336 School Violence ... 337 "What's Happened to Our Children?" ... 337 Leadership Rejoinder ... 337 Vehicular Pursuits ... 339 A High-Stakes Operation ... 339 The Supreme Court's View ... 340 Supervisory Roles and Liability ... 341 When All Hell Breaks Loose : Notifying Managers and Supervisors ... 344 Case Studies ... 344 Summary ... 346 Items for Review ... 346 References ... 346 Chapter12 Disasters, Critical Incidents, and Homeland Defense ... 349 Learning Objectives ... 349 Introduction ... 350 Establishing Command and Control : The Incident Command System ... 351 Need for an Incident Command System ... 351 Initial Duties and Responsibilities ... 352 Tactical Concerns ... 354 Mutual Aid Agreements ... 355 Disasters : Natural and Accidental Calamities ... 356 When Natural Rages... ... 356 Major Fires, Airplane Crashes, Hazardous Materials ... 357 Critical Incidents : Hostage, Riot, and Bomb Situations ... 361 Barricaded Persons and Hostages ... 361 Civil Disorders and Riot Control ... 363 Bomb Incidents ... 365 Use of Tactical Units ... 366 Terrorism and Homeland Defense ... 367 A Nation Changed and Challenged ... 367 Definitions and Types ... 368 A Looming Threat : Bioterrorism ... 371 Local Law Enforcement Responses ... 371 Emergency Response Checklist and Lessons Learned ... 372 Technology Needs ... 373 Case Studies ... 375 Summary ... 376 Items for Review ... 376 References ... 377 Chapter13 Community Policing and Problem Solving ... 379 Learning Objectives ... 379 Introduction ... 380 The Extent and Nature of Community Policing and Problem Solving Practices : An Overview ... 381 A "Sweep" of the Nation ... 381 A Change in Philosophy and Methods : An Illustration ... 383 The S.A.R.A. Process ... 386 Implementation and Leadership Issues ... 390 The Key to Success : First-Line Supervisors ... 391 Executives and Managers ... 393 Valuing the Line Officer ... 395 Another Management and Supervisory Dilemma : Gaining Time for Officers to Solve Problems ... 395 Other Important Considerations ... 397 How to Fail ... 399 Case Studies ... 401 Summary ... 403 Items for Review ... 403 References ... 403 PART FOUR : EPILOGUE ... 405 Chapter14 Future Trends and Challenges ... 407 Learning Objectives ... 407 Introduction ... 408 The Need for a Futuristic View ... 409 Predicting the Future ... 410 Scanning, Scenario Writing, Drivers ... 410 A Changing Society, a Changing Future ... 411 Demographics ... 411 Crime ... 412 Anticipated Changes in Policing ... 413 Community Oriented Policing and Problem Solving ... 415 High Technology : New Developments - and Problems ... 417 Other Internal Factors That Will Affect Policing ... 420 The Rank and File ... 421 Participative Management ... 421 Flattening the Organization ... 422 Quality of Life Within Police Agencies ... 422 In Sum : Questions for the Future ... 423 Case Studies ... 424 Summary ... 425 Items for Review ... 426 References ... 426 APPENDIX ... 429 Advice That Has Stood the Test of Time : Some Practical Counsel ... 429 Analects of Confucius and Machiavelli ... 430 Cues for Today's Supervisors and Managers ... 431