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CONTENTS
Preface ... xvii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction ... 1
References ... 5
CHAPTER 2 Water Management : Institutions and Technology ... 6
2.1 From Projects to Issues ... 6
2.2 Institutions .....
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CONTENTS
Preface ... xvii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction ... 1
References ... 5
CHAPTER 2 Water Management : Institutions and Technology ... 6
2.1 From Projects to Issues ... 6
2.2 Institutions ... 7
2.3 Legal Considerations ... 8
2.4 Technology and Water Management ... 14
2.5 Outlook for the Future ... 16
Problems ... 16
References ... 17
CHAPTER 3 Water Management : Environmental Considerations ... 18
3.1 Environmental Regulation and Protection ... 20
3.2 Effects of Environmental Regulations ... 24
3.3 The Future of Pollution Control Efforts in the United States ... 25
Problems ... 26
References ... 26
CHAPTER 4 Water Requirements, Water Supply, and Waste Volumes ... 27
4.1 Primary WaterUsing Sectors ... 27
4.2 Water Supply Considerations ... 41
4.3 Quantities of Wastes ... 50
4.4 Industrial Waste Volumes ... 54
4.5 Agricultural Wastes ... 54
Problems ... 54
References ... 56
CHAPTER 5 Development of Water Supplies ... 60
Water Quantity ... 60
5.1 Soil Moisture ... 60
5.2 Surface Waters and Groundwater ... 61
5.3 Runoff Distribution ... 61
5.4 Groundwater Distribution ... 62
Water Quality ... 64
5.5 Groundwater ... 65
5.6 Surface Water ... 65
Objectives of Water Resources Development ... 66
5.7 Planning for Water Resources Development ... 66
5.8 The Water Budget ... 69
SurfaceWater Supplies ... 71
5.9 Basin Characteristics Affecting Runoff ... 71
5.10 Natural and Regulated Runoff ... 71
5.11 Storage ... 72
Reservoirs ... 73
5.12 Determination of Required Reservoir Capacity ... 73
5.13 Classical Method of Computation ... 73
5.14 Frequency of Extreme Events ... 76
5.15 Probabilistic Mass Type of Analysis ... 77
5.16 Losses from Storage ... 78
Groundwater ... 80
5.17 The Subsurface Distribution of Water ... 80
5.18 Aquifers ... 81
5.19 Fluctuations in Groundwater Level ... 82
5.20 Safe Yield of an Aquifer ... 82
5.21 Groundwater Flow ... 84
5.22 Hydraulics of Wells ... 87
5.23 Boundary Effects ... 95
5.24 Regional Groundwater Systems ... 96
5.25 Saltwater Intrusion ... 100
5.26 Groundwaler Recharge ... 101
5.27 Concurrent Development of Groundwater and SurfaceWater Sources ... 102
Problems ... 103
References ... 105
CHAPTER 6 Transportation and Distribution of Water ... 107
6.1 Types of Aqueducts ... 107
6.2 Hydraulic Considerations ... 108
6.3 Design of Transportation Systems ... 112
Distribution Systems ... 117
6.4 System Configurations ... 117
6.5 Basic System Requirements ... 117
6.6 Hydraulic Design ... 119
6.7 Distribution System Design and Analysis ... 148
6.8 Distribution Reservoirs and Service Storage ... 151
Pumping ... 159
6.9 Pumping Head ... 159
6.10 Power ... 159
6.11 Cavitation ... 160
6.12 System Head ... 161
6.13 Pump Characteristics ... 161
6.14 Selection of Pumping Units ... 163
Problems ... 165
References ... 169
CHAPTER 7 Wastewater Systems ... 171
Hydraulic Considerations ... 171
7.1 Uniform Flow ... 171
7.2 Gradually Varied Flow and Surface Profiles ... 174
7.3 Velocity Considerations ... 178
Design of Sanitary Sewers ... 179
7.4 House and Building Connections ... 179
7.5 Collecting Sewers ... 179
7.6 Intercepting Sewers ... 180
7.7 Materials ... 180
7.8 System Layout ... 180
7.9 Hydraulic Design ... 183
7.10 Protection Against Floodwaters ... 185
7.11 Inverted Siphons ... 185
7.12 Wastewater Pumping Stations ... 187
Design of Storm Drainage Systems ... 187
7.13 Hydrologic Considerations ... 188
7.14 Design Flow ... 188
7.15 Procedures for Estimating Runoff ... 189
7.16 Stormwater Inlets ... 200
7.17 System Layout ... 203
7.18 Hydraulic Design of Lurhan Storm Drainage Systems ... 205
Problems ... 212
References ... 214
CHAPTERS fWater Quality ... 216
DrinkingWater Standards ... 216
8.1 Microbiology of Drinking Water ... 216
8.2 Inorganic Chemicals ... 220
8.3 Organic Chemicals ... 223
8.4 Trihalomethanes ... 227
8.5 Radionuclidcs ... 228
8.6 Turbidity ... 229
8.7 Secondary Standards ... 230
Toxic Water Pollutants ... 231
8.8 Priority Toxic Pollutants ... 231
8.9 Volatile Organic Chemicals ... 235
Quality Criteria for Surface Waters ... 237
8.10 Conventional Water Pollutants ... 237
8.11 Toxic Water Pollutants ... 240
Selected Pollution Parameters ... 242
8.12 Total and Suspended Solids ... 242
8.13 Biochemical and Chemical Oxygen Demands ... 244
8.14 Coliform Bacteria ... 248
Problems ... 251
References ... 252
CHAPTER 9 Systems for Treating Wastewater and Water ... 254
Wastewater Treatment Systems ... 254
9.1 Industrial Wastewaters ... 254
9.2 Infiltration and Inflow ... 257
9.3 Combined Sewers ... 257
9.4 Purposes of Wastewater Treatment ... 258
9.5 Selection of Treatment Processes ... 261
Water Treatment Systems ... 270
9.6 Water Sources ... 270
9.7 Purpose of Water Treatment ... 272
9.8 Selection of WaterTreatment Processes ... 273
9.9 WaterProcessing Sludges ... 279
CHAPTER 10 PhysicalTreatment Processes ... 281
FlowMeasuring Devices ... 281
10.1 Measurement of Water Flow ... 281
10.2 Measurement of Wastewater Flow ... 282
Screening Devices ... 283
10.3 WaterIntake Screens ... 284
10.4 Screens in Wastewater Treatment ... 285
10.5 Comminutors ... 286
Hydraulic Characteristics of Reactors ... 287
10.6 Residence Time Distribution ... 287
10.7 Ideal Reactors ... 287
10.8 Dispersed Plug Flow ... 291
Mixing and Flocculation ... 296
10.9 RapidMixing Devices ... 296
10.10 Flocculation ... 296
10.11 Recommended Standards for Water Works ... 301
Sedimentation ... 301
10.12 Type I Sedimentation ... 302
10.13 Type II Sedimentation ... 306
10.14 Zone Settling ... 308
10.15 Compression ... 311
10.16 Sedimentation in Water Treatment ... 312
10.17 Sedimentation in Wastewater Treatment ... 315
10.18 Grit Chambers in Wastewater Treatment ... 320
Filtration ... 322
10.19 Gravity GranularMedia Filtration ... 322
10.20 Description of a Typical Gravity Filter System ... 325
10.21 Flow Control Through Gravity Filters ... 328
10.22 Head Losses Through Filter Media ... 336
10.23 Backwashing and Media Fluidization ... 338
10.24 Pressure Filters ... 344
10.25 DiatomaceousEarth Filters ... 345
10.26 Slow Sand Filters ... 345
Problems ... 346
References ... 349
CHAPTER 11 ChemicalTreatment Processes ... 351
Chemical Considerations ... 351
11.1 Inorganic Chemicals and Compounds ... 351
11.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration ... 356
11.3 Alkalinity and pH Relationships ... 356
11.4 Chemical Equilibria ... 358
11.5 Ways of Shifting Chemical Equilibria ... 359
11.6 Chemical Process Kinetics ... 360
11.7 Colloidal Dispersions ... 365
11.8 Coagulation and Flocculation ... 367
Coagulation ... 371
11.9 Coagulants ... 371
11.10 Coagulant Aids ... 374
11.11 Jar Test ... 376
Water Softening ... 377
11.12 Chemistry of LimeSoda Ash Process ... 377
11.13 Process Variations in LimeSoda Ash Softening ... 378
11.14 Ion Exchange Softening and Nitrate Removal ... 386
Iron and Manganese Removal ... 388
11.15 Chemistry of Iron and Manganese ... 388
11.16 Preventativc Treatment ... 389
11.17 Iron and Manganese Removal Processes ... 389
Corrosion and Corrosion Control ... 391
11.18 Electrochemical Mechanism of Iron Corrosion ... 392
11.19 Water Stabilization ... 393
11.20 Cathodic Protection ... 397
11.21 Corrosion of Sewer Pipes ... 398
Disinfection ... 398
11.22 Chemistry of Chlorination ... 399
11.23 Disinfection of Drinking Water ... 401
11.24 Disinfection of Wastewater Effluents ... 403
11.25 Chlorine Handling and Dosing ... 404
11.26 Chlorine Dioxide ... 404
11.27 Ozone ... 405
11.28 Control of Trihalomethanes ... 406
Taste and Odor ... 407
11.29 Control of Taste and Odor ... 407
Fluoridation ... 408
11.30 Fluoridation ... 409
11.31 Defluoridation ... 410
Reduction of Dissolved Salts ... 411
11.32 Distillation of Seawater ... 411
11.33 Reverse Osmosis ... 413
11.34 Electrodialysis ... 419
Problems ... 419
References ... 425
CHAPTER 12 Biological Treatment Processes ... 428
Biological Considerations ... 428
12.1 Bacteria and Fungi ... 428
12.2 Algae ... 431
12.3 Protozoans and Higher Animals ... 433
12.4 Viruses ... 435
12.5 Metabolism, Energy, and Synthesis ... 438
12.6 Enzyme Kinetics ... 442
12.7 Growth Kinetics of Pure Bacterial Cultures ... 444
12.8 Biological Growth in Wastewater Treatment ... 447
12.9 Factors Affecting Growth ... 450
12.10 Population Dynamics ... 452
Characteristics of Wastewater ... 457
12.11 Flow and Strength Variations ... 457
12.12 Composition of Wastewater ... 461
Trickling(Biological) Filters ... 463
12.13 Description of a Trickling Filter ... 465
12.14 TricklingFilter Secondary Systems ... 466
12.15 Loading Standards for StoneMedia Trickling Filters ... 469
12.16 Efficiency Equations for StoneMedia Trickling Filters ... 471
12.17 Operational Problems of StoneMedia Filters ... 477
Biological Filters with Synthetic Media ... 478
12.18 Description of PlasticMedia Filters ... 478
12.19 Efficiency Equations for PlasticMedia Trickling Filters ... 480
12.20 Biological Towers with Redwood Media ... 487
Rotating Biological Contactors ... 490
12.21 Description of Rotating Biological Contactor Media ... 490
12.22 Application of the RBC Process ... 492
12.23 Design of the RBC Process ... 495
Activated Sludge ... 497
12.24 BOD Loadings and Aeration Periods ... 498
12.25 ActivatedSludge Treatment Systems ... 501
12.26 HighPurityOxygen Activated Sludge ... 513
12.27 Design Criteria for HighPurityOxygen Aeration ... 516
12.28 Kinetics Model of the ActivatedSludge Process ... 519
12.29 Laboratory Determination of Kinetic Constants ... 524
12.30 Application of the Kinetics Model in Process Design ... 528
12.31 Oxygen Transfer and Oxygenation Requirements ... 532
12.32 Determination of OxygenTransfer Coefficients ... 537
12.33 Operation and Control of ActivatedSludge Processes ... 543
Stabilization Ponds ... 546
12.34 Description of a Stabilization Pond ... 546
12.35 BOD Loadings ... 546
12.36 Operation of Stabilization Ponds ... 548
12.37 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stabilization Ponds ... 548
12.38 Completely Mixed Aerated Lagoons ... 550
Odor Control ... 554
12.39 Sources of Odors in Wastewater Treatment ... 555
12.40 Methods of Odor Control ... 556
12.41 Individual OnSite Wastewater Disposal ... 557
Marine Wastewater Disposal ... 559
12.42 Ocean Outfalls ... 559
Problems ... 559
References ... 567
CHAPTER 13 Processing of Sludges ... 569
Sources, Characteristics, and Quantities of Waste Sludges ... 569
13.1 Weight and Volume Relationships ... 569
13.2 Characteristics and Quantities of Wastewater Sludges ... 572
13.3 Characteristics and Quantities of WaterProcessing Sludges ... 579
Arrangement of Unit Processes in Sludge Disposal ... 582
13.4 Selection of Processes for Wastewater Sludges ... 583
13.5 Selection of Processes for Water Treatment Sludges ... 589
Gravity Thickening ... 593
13.6 Description of Gravity Thickeners ... 593
13.7 Design of Wastewater Sludge Thickeners ... 595
13.8 Design of WaterTreatment Sludge Thickeners ... 596
Flotation Thickening ... 597
13.9 Description of DissolvedAir Flotation ... 597
13.10 Design of DissolvedAir Flotation Units ... 598
Biological Sludge Digestion ... 600
13.11 Anaerobic Sludge Digestion ... 601
13.12 SingleStage FloatingCover Digesters ... 601
13.13 HighRate(Completely Mixed) Digesters ... 603
13.14 Volatile Solids Loadings and Detention Times ... 605
13.15 Anaerobic Digester Capacity ... 606
13.16 Startup and Monitoring of Digesters ... 609
13.17 Aerobic Sludge Digestion ... 609
13.18 OpenAir Drying Beds ... 610
13.19 Composting ... 611
Vacuum Filtration ... 613
13.20 Description of Rotary Vacuum Filtration ... 614
13.21 Theory of Vacuum Filtration ... 616
13.22 Sizing Vacuum Filters ... 619
13.23 Vacuum Filtration of Wastewater Sludges ... 621
Pressure Filtration ... 623
13.24 Description of Belt Filter Press Dewatering ... 624
13.25 Application of Belt Filter Dewatering ... 625
13.26 Sizing of Belt Filter Presses ... 628
13.27 Description of Filter Press Dewatering ... 631
13.28 Application of Pressure Filtration ... 633
Centrifugation ... 636
13.29 Description of Centrifugation ... 636
13.30 Applications of Centrifugation ... 639
13.31 SuspendedSolidsRemoval Efficiency ... 640
Recovery of Chemicals ... 642
13.32 Lime Recovery ... 642
13.33 Alum Recovery ... 643
Ultimate Disposal ... 644
13.34 Land Application of Sludge ... 644
13.35 Land Burial of Dewatered Sludge ... 649
13.36 Combustion of Organic Sludges ... 649
13.37 Sludge Incinerators ... 651
13.38 Ocean Disposal of Sludge ... 653
Problems ... 654
References ... 661
CHAPTER 14 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes ... 662
Limitations of Secondary Treatment ... 662
14.1 Effluent Standards ... 663
14.2 Flow Equalization ... 664
Selection of Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes ... 666
14.3 Selecting and Combining Unit Processes ... 666
SuspendedSolids Removal ... 669
14.4 GranularMedia Filtration ... 669
14.5 Filtration and Chlorination for Virus Removal ... 674
14.6 Microscreening ... 676
Carbin Adsorption ... 677
14.7 GranularCarbon Columns ... 677
14.8 Carbon Regeneration ... 680
Phosphorus Removal ... 680
14.9 Biological Phosphorus Removal ... 682
14.10 BiologicalChemical Phosphorus Removal ... 683
14.11 Tracing Phosphorus Through Treatment Processes ... 687
14.12 PhysicalChemical Processing ... 690
Nitrogen Removal ... 692
14.13 Tracing Nitrogen Through Treatment Processes ... 693
14.14 Biological Nitrification ... 695
14.15 Biological Denitrification ... 701
14.16 Biological NitrificationDenitrification ... 706
14.17 Ammonia Stripping ... 710
14.18 Breakpoint Chlorination ... 713
14.19 Ion Exchange for Ammonia Ions ... 713
Wastewater Reclamation ... 714
14.20 Wastewater Reclamation Processes ... 715
14.21 Water Factory 21, Orange County, California ... 716
Land Treatment of Wastewater ... 722
14.22 Methods of Applying Wastewater to Land ... 722
14.23 Spray Irrigation ... 725
Problems ... 731
References ... 735
CHAPTER 15 WaterQuality Models ... 737
15.1 Types of WaterQuality Models ... 739
15.2 An Elementary WaterQuality Model ... 741
15.3 EPA Stormwater Management Model ... 748
15.4 EPA Qual II Model ... 753
15.5 Lake and Reservoir Modeling ... 759
15.6 GroundwaterQuality Models ... 763
15.7 Reliability of WaterQuality Models ... 765
Problems ... 765
References ... 766
Appendix ... 769
Index ... 781
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