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CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
Water 1 ... 1
1.1 Water ... 1
1.2 Hydrology and Hydrogeology ... 3
1.3 The Hydrologic cycle ... 4
1.4 Energy Transformations ... 8
1.5 The Hydrologic Equation ... ...
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목차 전체
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
Water 1 ... 1
1.1 Water ... 1
1.2 Hydrology and Hydrogeology ... 3
1.3 The Hydrologic cycle ... 4
1.4 Energy Transformations ... 8
1.5 The Hydrologic Equation ... 9
Case : Mono Lake ... 10
1.6 Hydrogeologists ... 12
1.7 Applied Hydrogeology ... 12
1.8 The Business of Hydrogeology (What Do Hydrogeologists Do All Day?) ... 13
1.8.1 Application of Hydrogeology to Human Concerns ... 13
1.8.2 Business Aspects of Hydrogeology ... 16
1.8.3 Ethical Aspects of Hydrogeology ... 17
1.9 Sources of Hydrogeologic Information ... 19
1.10 working the Problems ... 21
CHAPTER TWO
Evaporation and Precipitation ... 27
2.1 Evaporation ... 27
2.2 Transpiration ... 31
2.3 Evapotranspiration ... 32
2.4 Condensation ... 36
2.5 Formation of Precipitation ... 36
2.6 Measurement of Precipitation ... 38
2.7 Snow Measurements ... 39
2.8 Effective Depth of Precipitation ... 40
CHAPTER THREE
Runoff and Streamflow ... 47
3.1 Events During Precipitation ... 47
3.2 Hydrograph Separation ... 53
3.2.1 Baseflow Recessions ... 53
3.2.2 Storm Hydrograph ... 53
3.2.3 Gaining and Losing Streams ... 58
3.3 Rainfall-Runoff Relationships ... 61
3.4 Duration Curves ... 62
3.5 Determining Ground-Water Recharge from Baseflow ... 64
3.6 Measurement of Streamflow ... 67
3.6.1 Stream Gaging ... 67
3.6.2 Weirs ... 69
3.7 Manning Equation ... 70
CHAPTER FOUR
Properties of Aquifers ... 77
4.1 Matter and Energy ... 77
4.2 Porosity of Earth materials ... 80
4.2.1 Definition of Porosity ... 80
4.2.2 Porosity and Classification of Sediments ... 82
4.2.3 Porosity of Sedimentary Rocks ... 86
4.2.4 Porosity of Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks ... 88
4.2.5 Porosity of Volcanic Rocks ... 89
4.3 Specific Yield ... 90
4.4 Hydraulic conductivity of Earth Materials ... 93
4.4.1 Darcys Experiment ... 94
4.4.2 Hydraulic conductivity ... 95
4.4.3 Permeability of Sediments ... 98
Case Study : Hydraulic conductivity Estimates in Glacial Outwash ... 101
4.4.4 Permeability of Rocks ... 102
4.5 Permeameters ... 103
4.6 Water Table ... 107
4.7 Aquifers ... 109
4.8 Water Table and Potentiometric Surface Maps ... 114
4.9 Aquifer Characteristics ... 115
4.10 Compressibility and Effective Stress ... 119
4.11 Homogeneity and Isotropy ... 120
4.12 Gradient of the Potentiometric Surface ... 124
CHAPTER FIVE
Principles of Ground-Water Flow ... 131
5.1 Introduction ... 131
5.2 Mechanical Energy ... 132
5.3 Hydraulic Head ... 134
5.4 Head in Water of Variable Density ... 137
5.5 Force Potential and Hydraulic Head ... 141
5.6 DarcyLaw ... 142
5.6.1 Darcys Law in Terms of Force and Potential ... 142
5.6.2 The Applicability of Darcys Law ... 143
5.6.3 Specific Discharge and Average Linear Velocity ... 145
5.7 Equations of Ground-Water Flow ... 146
5.7.1 Confined Aquifers ... 146
5.7.2 Unconfined Aquifers ... 150
5.8 Solution of Flow Equations ... 151
5.9 Gradient of Hydraulic Head ... 151
5.10 Relationship of Ground-Water Flow Direction to grad h ... 153
5.11 Flow Lines and Flow Nets ... 153
5.12 Refraction of Flow Nets ... 159
5.13 Steady Flow in a Confined Aquifer ... 161
5.14 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer ... 163
CHAPTER SIX
Soil Moisture and Ground-Water Recharge ... 175
6.1 Introduction ... 175
6.2 Porosity and Water Content of Soil ... 175
6.3 Capillarity and the Capillary Fringe ... 180
6.4 Pore-Water Tension in the Vadose Zone ... 183
6.5 soil Moisture ... 183
6.6 Theory of Unsaturated Flow ... 187
6.7 Water-Table Recharge ... 191
CHAPTER SEVEN
Ground-Water Flow to Wells ... 197
7.1 Introduction ... 197
7.2 Basic Assumptions ... 198
7.3 Computing Drawdown Caused by a Pumping Well ... 198
7.3.1 Unsteady Radial Flow ... 198
7.3.2 Flow in a Completely Confined Aquifer ... 200
7.3.3 Flow in a Leaky, Confined Aquifer ... 203
7.3.4 Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer ... 212
7.4 Determining Aquifer Parameters from Time-Drawdown Data ... 214
7.4.1 Introduction ... 214
7.4.2 Steady-State Conditions ... 215
7.4.3 Nonequilibrium Flow Conditions ... 219
7.4.4 Nonequilibrium Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer with Storage in the Aquitard ... 236
7.4.5 Nonequilibrium Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer ... 237
7.4.6 Effect of Partial Penetration of Wells ... 241
7.5 Slug Tests ... 243
7.5.1 Determination of Aquifer Parameters with Slug Tests ... 243
7.5.2 Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos Method for a Confined Aquifer ... 244
7.5.3 Hvorslev Slug-Test Method ... 247
7.5.4 Bouwer and Rice Slug-Test Method ... 251
7.6 Estimating Aquifer Transmissivity from Specific Capacity Data ... 256
7.7 Intersecting Pumping Cones and Well Interference ... 257
7.8 Effect of Hydrogeologic Boundaries ... 258
7.9 Aquifer-Test Design ... 261
7.9.1 Single-Well Aquifer Tests ... 261
7.9.2 Aquifer Tests with Observation Wells ... 264
CHAPTER EIGHT
Regional Ground-Water Flow ... 275
8.1 Introduction ... 275
8.2 Steady Regional Ground-Water Flow in Unconfined Aquifers ... 275
8.2.1 Recharge and Discharge Areas ... 275
8.2.2 Ground-Water Flow Patterns in Homogeneous Aquifers ... 276
8.2.3 Effect of Buried Lenses ... 283
8.2.4 Nonhomogeneous and Anisotropic Aquifers ... 284
8.3 Transient Flow in Regional Ground-Water Systems ... 287
8.4 Noncyclical Ground Water ... 288
8.5 Springs ... 289
8.6 Geology of Regional Flow Systems ... 291
Case Study : Regional Flow Systems in the Great Basin ... 291
Case Study : Regional Flow Systems in the Coastal zone of the Southeastern United States ... 293
Case Study : Regional Flow Systems of the High Plains Aquifer ... 303
8.7 Interactions of Ground Water and Lakes or Wetlands ... 308
CHAPTER NINE
Geology of Ground-Water Occurrence ... 319
9.1 Introduction ... 319
9.2 Unconsolidated Aquifers ... 320
9.2.1 Glaciated Terrain ... 321
Case Study : Hydrogeology of a Buried Valley Aquifer at Dayton, Ohio ... 325
9.2.2 Alluvial Valleys ... 328
9.2.3 Alluvium in Tectonic Valleys ... 329
Case Study : Tectonic Valleys - San Bernardine Area ... 331
9.3 Lithified Sedimentary Rocks ... 335
Case Study : Sandstone Aquifer of Northeastern Illinois - Southeastern Wisconsin ... 335
9.3.1 Complex Stratigraphy ... 338
9.3.2 Folds and Faults ... 340
9.3.3 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks ... 343
9.3.4 Carbonate Rocks ... 345
9.3.5 Coal and Lignite ... 355
9.4 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks ... 356
9.4.1 Intrusive igneous and Metamorphic Rocks ... 356
9.4.2 Volcanic Rocks ... 358
Case Study : Volcanic Plateaus - Columbia River Basalts ... 358
Case Study : Volcanic Domes - Hawaiian Islands ... 359
9.5 Ground Water in Permafrost Regions ... 361
Case Study : Alluvial Aquifers - Fairbanks, Alaska ... 363
9.6 Ground Water in Desert Areas ... 364
9.7 Coastal Plain Aquifers ... 364
9.8 Fresh-Water - Saline-Water Relations ... 368
9.8.1 Coastal Aquifers ... 368
9.8.2 Oceanic Islands ... 373
9.9 Tidal Effects ... 376
9.10 Ground-Water Regions of the United States ... 377
CHAPTER TEN
Water Chemistry ... 389
10.1 Introduction ... 389
10.2 Units of Measurement ... 390
10.3 Types of Chemical Reactions in Water ... 391
10.4 Law of Mass Action ... 392
10.5 common-Ion Effect ... 394
10.6 Chemical Activities ... 394
10.7 Ionization Constant of Water and Weak Acids ... 398
10.8 Carbonate Equilibrium ... 401
10.8.1 Carbonate Reactions ... 401
10.8.2 Carbonate Equilibrium in Water with Fixed partial Pressure of C O2 ... 403
10.8.3 Carbonate Equilibrium with External pH Control ... 406
10.9 Free Energy ... 407
10.10 Oxidation Potential ... 408
10.11 Ion Exchange ... 412
10.12 Isotope Hydrology ... 414
10.12.1 Stable Isotopes ... 415
10.12.2 Radioactive Isotopes Used for Age Dating ... 419
10.13 Major Ion Chemistry ... 420
10.14 Presentation of Results of Chemical Analyses ... 421
10.14.1 Piper Diagram ... 421
10.14.2 Stiff Pattern ... 424
10.14.3 Schoeller Semilogarithmic Diagram ... 425
Case Study : Chemical Geohydrology of the Floridan Aquifer System ... 426
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Water Quality and Ground-Water Contamination ... 433
11.1 Introduction ... 433
11.2 Water-Quality Standards ... 437
11.3 Collection of Water Samples ... 441
11.4 Ground-Water Monitoring ... 442
11.4.1 Planning a Ground-Water Monitoring Program ... 442
11.4.2 Installing Ground-Water Monitoring Wells ... 443
11.4.3 Withdrawing Water Samples from Monitoring Wells ... 447
11.5 Vadose-Zone Monitoring ... 450
11.6 Mass Transport of Solutes ... 453
11.6.1 Introduction ... 453
11.6.2 Diffusion ... 453
11.6.3 Advection ... 454
11.6.4 Mechanical Dispersion ... 455
11.6.5 Hydrodynamic Dispersion ... 455
11.6.6 Retardation ... 461
11.6.7 Degradation of Organic Compounds ... 471
11.7 Ground-Water Contamination ... 472
11.7.1 Introduction ... 472
11.7.2 Septic Tanks and Cesspools ... 473
11.7.3 Landfills ... 475
11.7.4 Chemical Spills and Leaking Underground Tanks ... 481
11.7.5 Mining ... 484
Case Study : Contamination from Uranium Tailings Ponds ... 486
11.7.6 Other Sources of Ground-Water Contamination ... 487
11.8 Ground-Water Restoration ... 487
11.8.1 Introduction ... 487
11.8.2 Source-Control Measures ... 487
11.8.3 Plume Treatment ... 490
11.9 Case History : Ground-Water Contamination at a Superfund Site ... 493
11.9.1 Background ... 493
11.9.2 Geology ... 495
11.9.3 Hydrogeology ... 495
11.9.4 Ground-Water Contamination ... 497
11.9.5 Site Remediation ... 499
11.10 Capture Zone Analysis ... 501
CHAPTER TWELVE
Ground-Water Development and Management ... 511
12.1 Introduction ... 511
12.2 Dynamic Equilibrium in Natural Aquifers ... 512
Case Study : Deep Sandstone Aquifer of Northeastern Illinois ... 513
12.3 Ground-Water Budgets ... 514
12.4 Management Potential of Aquifers ... 516
12.5 Paradox of Safe Yield ... 518
12.6 Water Law ... 519
12.6.1 Legal Concepts ... 519
12.6.2 Laws Regulating Quantity of Surface Water ... 520
12.6.3 Laws Regulating Quantity of Ground Water ... 523
Case Study : Arizonas Ground-Water Code ... 526
12.6.4 Laws Regulating the Quality of Water ... 527
Case Study : Wisconsins Ground-Water Protection Law ... 530
12.7 Artificial Recharge ... 531
12.8 Protection of Water Quality in Aquifers ... 533
12.9 Ground-Water Mining and cyclic Storage ... 536
12.10 Conjunctive Use of Ground and Surface Water ... 538
12.11 Trends in Water Resources Management ... 540
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Field Methods ... 543
13.1 Introduction ... 543
13.2 Fracture-Trace Analysis ... 543
13.3 Surficial Methods of Geophysical Investigations ... 549
13.3.1 Direct-Current Electrical Resistivity ... 549
13.3.2 Electromagnetic Conductivity ... 555
13.3.3 Seismic Methods ... 559
13.3.4 Ground-Penetrating Radar and Magnetometer Surveys ... 566
13.3.5 Gravity and Aeromagnetic Methods ... 568
13.4 Geophysical Well Logging ... 571
13.4.1 Caliper Logs ... 573
13.4.2 Temperature Logs ... 574
13.4.3 Single-Point Resistance ... 574
13.4.4 Resistivity ... 576
13.4.5 Spontaneous Potential ... 576
13.4.6 Nuclear Logging ... 576
13.5 Hydrogeologic site Evaluations ... 582
13.6 Responsibilities of the field Hydrogeologist ... 584
13.7 Project Reports ... 588
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Ground-Water Models ... 593
14.1 Introduction ... 593
14.2 Applications of Ground-Water Models ... 596
14.3 Data Requirements for Models ... 597
14.4 Finite-Difference Models ... 598
14.4.1 Finite-Difference Grids ... 598
14.4.2 Finite-Difference Notation ... 600
14.4.3 Boundary conditions ... 600
14.4.4 Methods of Solution for Steady-State Case for Square Grid Spacing ... 602
14.4.5 Methods of Solution for the Transient Case ... 604
14.5 Finite-Element Models ... 605
14.6 Method of Characteristics ... 606
14.7 Use of Published Models ... 606
Case Study : Ground-Water Modeling for a Planned Underground Mine ... 610
Appendices ... 617
1 Values of the function W(u) for various values of u ... 618
2 Values of the function F(n,μ) for various values of n and μ ... 619
3 Values of the functions W(u, r/B) and W( uA , r/B) for various values of u or uA ... 620
4 Values of the function H( μ , β ) ... 621
5 Values of the function K0 (x) and exp (x) K0 (x) ... 622
6 Values of the function W( uA , Γ ) and W( uB , Γ ) for water-table aquifers ... 623
7 Table for length conversion ... 625
8 Table for area conversion ... 625
9 Table for volume conversion ... 626
10 Table for time conversion ... 626
11 Solubility Products for selected minerals and compounds ... 627
12 Atomic weights and numbers of naturally occurring elements ... 628
13 Table of values of erf (x) and erfc(x) ... 630
14 Absolute density and absolute viscosity of water ... 631
15 Loading and running computer programs ... 632
Glossary ... 635
Answers to Selected Problems ... 651
References ... 655
Index ... 681
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