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CONTENTS
PART 1 : INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS
1. The Art and Science of Economic Analysis ... 1
The Economic Problem: Scarce Resources But Unlimited Wants ... 2
Resources ... 2
Good...
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CONTENTS
PART 1 : INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS
1. The Art and Science of Economic Analysis ... 1
The Economic Problem: Scarce Resources But Unlimited Wants ... 2
Resources ... 2
Goods and Services ... 3
Economic Actors ... 4
Microeconomics and Macroeconomics ... 4
The Art of Economic Analysis ... 5
Rational Self-Interest ... 5
Economic Analysis Is Marginal Analysis ... 5
Case Study: Marginal Analysis in the Computer Industry ... 6
Choice Requires Time and Information ... 7
The Science of Economic Analysis ... 7
The Role of Theory ... 8
The Scientific Method ... 8
Economists Tell Stories ... 9
Case Study: A Yen for Vending Machines ... 9
Predicting Average Behavior ... 10
Normative Versus Positive Analysis ... 10
Some Pitfalls of Faulty Economic Analysis ... 11
If Economists Are So Smart, Why Arent They Rich? ... 12
Appendix: Understanding Graphs ... 16
Drawing Graphs ... 17
The Slopes of Straight Lines ... 19
The Slope Depends on How Units Are Measured ... 19
The Slopes of Curved Lines ... 19
Curve Shifts ... 21
The 45-Degree Ray from the Origin ... 22
2. Some Tools of Economic Analysis ... 25
Choice and Opportunity Cost ... 26
Opportunity Cost ... 26
Case Study: The Opportunity Cost of College ... 26
Opportunity Cost Is Subjective ... 27
Sunk Cost and Choice ... 28
Specialization, Comparative Advantage, and Exchange ... 28
The Law of Comparative Advantage ... 29
Absolute and Comparative Advantage ... 29
Specialization and Exchange ... 30
Divisio of Labor and Gains from Specialization ... 30
Case Study: Evidence of Specialization ... 31
The Economys Production Possibilites ... 32
Efficiency and the Production Possibilities Frontier ... 32
Inefficient and Unattainable Production ... 34
Shape of the Production Possibilities Frontier ... 34
What Shifts the Production Possibilites Frontier? ... 35
What We Can Learn from the PPF ... 37
Three Questions Each Economic System Must Answer ... 37
Economic Systems ... 38
Pure Capitalism ... 38
Command Economy ... 39
Mixed and Transitional Economies ... 39
Economies Based on Custom or Religion ... 40
3. The Market System ... 43
Demand ... 44
The Law of Demand ... 44
The Demand Schedule and Demand Curve ... 45
Changes in Demand ... 47
Changes in Consumer Income ... 47
Changes in the Prices of Related Goods ... 48
Changes in Consumer Expectations ... 49
Changes in the Number or Composition of Consumers ... 49
Change in Consumer Tastes ... 49
supply ... 50
The Supply Schedule and Supply Curve ... 50
Changes in Supply ... 51
Changes in Technology ... 52
Changes in the Prices of Relevant Resources ... 53
Changes in the Prices of Alternative Goods ... 53
Changes in Producer Expectations ... 53
Changes in the Number of Producers ... 53
Demand and Supply Create a Market ... 54
Markets ... 54
Specialized Markets ... 54
Market Equilibrium ... 55
Markets Allocate Resources ... 55
Changes in Equilibrium Price and Quantity ... 57
Impact of Changes in Demand ... 57
Impact of Changes in Supply ... 58
Simultaneous Changes in Demand and Supply ... 59
Case Study: The Market for Professional Basketball ... 60
Disequilibrium Prices ... 61
Price Floors ... 62
Price Ceilings ... 62
Case Study: Toys Are serious Business ... 63
4. The Economic Actors: Households, Firms, Governments, and the Rest of the World ... 67
The Household ... 68
The Evolution of the Household ... 68
Households Maximize Utility ... 68
Households as Resource Suppliers ... 68
Households as Demanders of Goods and Services ... 70
The Firm ... 70
Transaction Costs and Evolution of the Firm ... 70
Why Do Firms Specialize? ... 71
Why Does Household Production Still Exist? ... 72
Case Study: The Electronic Cottage ... 73
Kinds of Firms ... 73
Nonprofit Institutions ... 75
The Government ... 76
The Role of Government ... 76
Governments Structure and Objectives ... 77
Size and Growth of U.S. Government ... 78
Sources of Government Revenue ... 80
Tax Principles and Tax Incidence ... 81
The Rest of the World ... 82
International Trade ... 82
Exchange Rates ... 83
Trade Restrictions ... 83
Case Study: The World of Automobiles ... 84
PART 2 : FUNDAMENTALS OF MACROECONOMICS
5. Introduction to Macroeconomics ... 89
The National Economy ... 90
Whats Special about the National Economy? ... 90
Similarities Between the Human Body and the Economy ... 90
Testing New Theories ... 91
Knowledge and Performance ... 92
Economic Fluctuations and Growth ... 93
Economic Fluctuation Analysis ... 93
Case Study: The Global Economy ... 96
Leading Economic Indicators ... 98
Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply ... 98
Aggregate Output and the Price Level ... 98
Aggregate Supply Curve ... 100
Equilibrium ... 100
A Short History of the U.S. Economy ... 101
The Great Depression and Before ... 101
The Age of Keynes: Between the Great Depression and the Early 1970s ... 103
The Great Stagflation ... 104
Experience Since 1980 ... 104
The Twin Deficits ... 106
Case Study: Half Century of Price Levels and Real GDP ... 106
6. Productivity and Growth ... 110
U.S. Productivity ... 111
What Is Productivity? ... 111
Labor Productivity ... 111
The Per-Worker Production Function ... 112
Long-Term Productivity Growth ... 113
The Recent Slowdown in Productivity Growth ... 114
Why the Slowdown in Labor Productivity Growth? ... 115
Rate of Capital Formation ... 115
Change in the Labor Force ... 115
Changing Composition of Output ... 116
Increased Role of Government ... 116
Huge Budget Deficits ... 117
Research and Development ... 118
Basic and Applied Research ... 118
Expenditures for Research and Dvelopment ... 118
Patents and Productivity ... 120
Case Study: Computers and Productivity ... 120
Other Issues of Technology and Growth ... 122
Industrial Policy ... 122
Case Study: Picking Technological Winners ... 122
Dose Technological Change Lead to Unemployment? ... 123
Output Per Capita ... 124
Do Economies Converage? ... 125
7. Unemployment and Inflation ... 130
Unemployment ... 131
Measuring Unemployment ... 131
Changes over Time in Unemployment Statistics ... 133
Unemployment in Various Groups ... 134
Duration of Unemployment ... 135
Unemployment Differences across the Country ... 135
Case Study: Poor King Coal ... 136
Types of Unemployment ... 136
The Meaning of Full Employment ... 138
Unemployment Insurance ... 138
International Comparisons of Unemployment ... 139
Problems with Official Unemployment Figures ... 139
Inflation ... 140
Case Study: Hyperinflation in Brazil ... 140
Two Sources of Inflation ... 142
A Historical Look at Inflation and the Price Level ... 143
Anticipated versus Unticipated Inflation ... 143
The Transaction Costs of Variable Inflation ... 144
Adapting to Relative Price Changes ... 144
International Comparisons of Inflation ... 145
Inflation and Interest Rates ... 147
Why Is Inflation So Unpopular? ... 148
8. Measuring Economic Aggregates ... 152
The Product of a Nation ... 153
National Income Accounts ... 153
GDP Based on the Expenditure Approach ... 154
Composition of Aggregate Expenditure ... 155
GDP Based on the Income Approach ... 155
Limitations of National Income Accounting ... 157
Some Production Is Not Included in GDP ... 157
Leisure, Quality, and Variety ... 158
Case Study: Tracking a $ Trillion Economy ... 159
Gross Domestic Product Ignores Depreciation ... 160
GDP Does Not Reflect All Costs ... 160
GDP Values All Output Equally ... 161
Accounting for Price Changes ... 161
Price Indexes ... 162
Consumer Price Index ... 162
Problems with the CPI ... 163
GDP Price Index ... 164
Moving from Fixed Weights to Chain Weights ... 165
Case Study: Computer Prices ad GDP Estimation ... 165
Real GDP Estimates ... 160
Appendix A: A Closer Look at National Income Accounts ... 171
National Income ... 171
Personal Income ... 171
Disposable Income ... 172
Summary of National Income Accounts ... 172
Summary Income Statment of the Economy ... 172
Appendix B: The Chain-Weighted Index ... 174
Real GDP Index ... 174
GDP Price Index ... 175
9. Consumption and Aggregate Expenditure ... 177
Early Views of the Macroeconomy ... 178
The Classical View ... 178
Keynes and the Great Depression ... 178
The Circular Flow of Income and Expenditure ... 179
The Income Half of the Circular Flow ... 179
The Expenditure Half of the Circular Flow ... 181
Leakages Equal Injections ... 182
Planned Investment versus Actual Investment ... 182
Consumption ... 183
An Initial Look at Income and Consumption ... 183
The consumption Function ... 184
Marginal Propensities to Consume and to Save ... 185
MPC, MPS, and the Slope of the Consumption and Savings Functions ... 186
Nonincome Determinants of Consumption ... 188
Case Study: The Life-Cycle Hypothesis ... 190
Investment ... 191
The Demand for Investment ... 192
From Micro to Macro ... 193
Planned Investments of Investment ... 194
Case Study: Variability of Consumption and Investment ... 195
Government ... 196
Government Purchase Function ... 196
Net Taxes ... 196
Net Exports ... 197
Net Exports and Income ... 198
Nonincome Determinants of Net Exports ... 198
Appendix: Variable Net Exports ... 202
Net Exports and Income ... 202
Shifts in Net Exports ... 203
10. Aggregate Expenditure and Demand-Side Equilibrium ... 205
Aggregate Expenditure and Income ... 206
The Components of Aggregate Expenditure ... 206
Quantity of Real GDP Demanded ... 207
When Output and Planned Spending Differ ... 209
Leakages Equal Planned Injections ... 209
The Simple Spending Multiplier ... 210
Effects of an Increase in Aggregate Expenditure ... 210
The Spending Multiplier and the Circular Flow ... 212
Numerical Value of the Spending Multiplier ... 213
Case Study: Hard Times in Connecticut ... 214
Changes in the Price Level ... 215
A Higher Price Level ... 215
A Lower Price Level ... 217
The Multiplier and Shifts in Aggregate Demand ... 217
Case Study: Not Enough Saving ... 219
Appendix A: Variable Net Exports ... 224
Net Exports and the Spending Multiplier ... 225
A Change in Autonomous Spending ... 226
Appendix B: Algebra of Income and Expenditure ... 227
The Aggregate Expenditure Function ... 227
A More General Form of Income and Expenditure ... 227
Introducing Variable Net Exports ... 228
11. Aggregate Supply ... 230
Aggregate Supply in the Short Run ... 231
Labor Supply and Aggregate Supply ... 231
Potential Output and the Natural Rate of Unemployment ... 232
Actual Price Level Higher than Expected ... 233
Why Costs Rise When Output Exceeds Potential ... 233
The Price Level, Real Wages, and Labor Supply ... 234
Actual Price Level Lower than Expected ... 234
The Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve ... 235
Equilibrium in the Short Run and Long Run ... 236
Actual Price Level Higher than Expected ... 237
Actual Price Level Lower than Expected ... 239
Tracing Potential Output ... 241
Evidence on Aggregate Supply ... 241
Case Study: Output Gaps and Wage Flexibility ... 242
Changes in Aggregate Supply ... 244
Increases in Aggregate Supply ... 244
Decreases in Aggregate Supply ... 246
Case Study: Why Is Unemployment So High in Europe? ... 247
Appendix: The Market for Resources ... 251
The Market for Labor ... 251
Changes in the Expected Price Level ... 252
Potential GDP ... 253
Transitional Economies ... 462
Type of Economic Systems ... 462
Enterprises and Soft Budget Constraints ... 462
Case Study: Ownership and Resources Use ... 463
Markets and Institutions ... 464
Institutions and Economic Development ... 465
The "Big Bang" versus Gradualism ... 465
Privatization ... 466
Glossary ... 473
Index ... 481
Photo Credits ... 493
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