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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅸ
Bill of Rights ... xii
1 The American Legal System ... 1
Sources of the Law ... 2
The Common Law ... 3
The Law of Equity ... 8
Statutory Law ... 9
Con...
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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅸ
Bill of Rights ... xii
1 The American Legal System ... 1
Sources of the Law ... 2
The Common Law ... 3
The Law of Equity ... 8
Statutory Law ... 9
Constitutional Law ... 10
Administrative Rules ... 12
SUMMARY ... 14
The Judicial System ... 15
Facts Versus the Law ... 15
The Federal Court System ... 17
The State Court System ... 26
Judicial Review ... 27
Lawsuits ... 28
SUMMARY ... 32
Bibliography ... 32
2 The First Amendment : The Meaning of Freedom ... 33
Historical Development ... 34
Freedom of the Press in England ... 34
Freedom of the Press in Colonial America ... 35
SUMMARY ... 38
The First Amendment ... 39
The New Constitution ... 39
Freedom of Expression in the 18th Century ... 41
Freedom of Expression Today ... 42
SUMMARY ... 46
The Meaning of Freedom ... 46
Seditious Libel and the Right to Criticize the Government ... 47
Alien and Sedition Acts ... 48
Sedition in World War Ⅰ ... 49
The Smith Act ... 51
Depining the Limits of Freedom of Expression ... 52
SUMMARY ... 60
Taxation and the Press ... 61
SUMMARY ... 65
Prior Restraint ... 65
Near v. Minnesota ... 66
Austin v. Keefe ... 67
Pentagon Papers Case ... 68
Progressive Magazine Case ... 70
SUMMARY ... 72
Bibliography ... 73
3 The First Amendment : Contemporary Problems ... 75
Prior Restraint During Wartime ... 76
War in the Persian Gulf ... 77
SUMMARY ... 81
The First Amendment in the Schools ... 82
Censorship of the High School Press ... 83
Censorship of College Newspapers ... 90
Book Banning ... 95
SUMMARY ... 100
Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions ... 100
Forum Analysis ... 104
Public Forums ... 105
Private Forums ... 110
SUMMARY ... 112
Other Prior Restraints ... 113
Son of Sam Laws ... 113
Prior Restraint and Protests ... 114
SUMMARY ... 115
Hate Speech ... 116
Fighting Words Doctrine ... 117
SUMMARY ... 119
The First Amendment and the Information Superhighway ... 119
Bibliography ... 123
4 Libel : Establishing a Case ... 127
The Libel Landscape ... 128
Winning and Losing Libel Suits ... 129
The Lawsuit as a Weapon ... 131
Resolving the Problem ... 133
SUMMARY ... 135
Law of Defamation ... 135
Elements of Libel ... 136
Publication ... 139
Identification ... 142
Group Identification ... 145
Defamation ... 146
Falsity ... 153
SUMMARY ... 158
Bibliography ... 158
5 Libel : Proof of Fault ... 161
New York Times V. Sullivan ... 162
The Rationale for the Ruling ... 163
Public Persons Versus Private Persons ... 165
Who Is a Public Official? ... 165
All-Purpose Public Figures ... 169
Limited-Purpose Public Figures ... 170
Lower-Court Rulings ... 176
Businesses as Public Figures ... 180
The Public Figure Over Time ... 182
Private Persons ... 184
SUMMARY ... 184
The Meaning of Fault ... 185
Negligence ... 186
Actual Malice ... 189
SUMMARY ... 198
Bibliography ... 198
6 Libel : Defenses and Damages ... 201
Summary and Judgment/Statute of Limitations ... 202
Statute of Limitations ... 203
SUMMARY ... 207
Truth ... 207
Privileged Communications ... 207
Absolute Privilege ... 208
Qualified Privilege ... 209
Neutral Reportage ... 213
Abuse of Privilege ... 215
SUMMARY ... 217
Protection of Opinion ... 217
Rhetorical Hyperbole ... 217
The First Amendment ... 219
Fair Comment and Criticism ... 223
SUMMARY ... 225
Defenses and Damages ... 226
Consent ... 226
Right of Reply ... 226
Damages ... 228
Retraction Statutes ... 230
SUMMARY ... 231
Criminal Libel ... 232
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress ... 234
SUMMARY ... 236
Bibliography ... 237
7 Invasion of Privacy : Appropriation and Intrusion ... 239
The Growth of Privacy Law ... 240
Privacy and the Internet ... 242
Appropriation ... 243
Early Cases ... 245
Use of Name or Likeness ... 246
Advertising and Trade Purposes ... 249
News and Information Exception ... 250
Other Exceptions ... 252
Consent as a Defense ... 255
Life After Death ... 259
SUMMARY ... 260
Intrusion ... 260
Intrusion and the Internet ... 261
Intrusion and the Press ... 266
No Privacy in Public ... 266
The Use of Hidden Recording Devices ... 269
Intrusion and the Publication of Information Obtained Illegally ... 271
SUMMARY ... 272
Bibliography ... 272
8 Invasion of Privacy : Publication of Private Information and False Light ... 275
Publicity About Private Facts ... 276
Publicity ... 277
Private Facts ... 277
Offensive Material ... 282
Legitimate Public Concern ... 284
Recounting the Past ... 290
Private Facts on the Internet ... 292
SUMMARY ... 294
False Light Privacy ... 294
Fictionalization ... 295
Other Falsehoods ... 297
Highly Offensive Material ... 298
The Fault Requirement ... 299
SUMMARY ... 302
Bibliography ... 302
9 Gathering Information : Records and Meetings ... 303
News Gathering and the Law ... 305
The Constitution and News Gathering ... 305
SUMMARY ... 320
The Freedom of Information Act ... 320
FOIA and Electronic Communication ... 323
Agency Records ... 324
FOIA Exemptions ... 328
Handling FOIA Requests ... 343
Federal Open-Meetings Law ... 346
SUMMARY ... 348
State Laws on Meetings and Records ... 348
State Open-Meetings Laws ... 349
State Open-Records Laws ... 352
The Privatization of Public Government ... 353
SUMMARY ... 354
Laws That Restrict Access to Information ... 355
General Education Provisions Act ... 355
The Federal Privacy Law ... 355
Criminal History Privacy Laws ... 357
State Statutes That Limit Access to Information ... 358
SUMMARY ... 359
Bibliography ... 359
10 Protection of News Sources/Contempt Power ... 363
News and News Sources ... 365
Promissory Estoppel ... 370
Constitutional Protection of News Sources ... 373
Lower-Court Rulings ... 375
Nonconfidential Information and Waiver of the Privilege ... 382
Who is a Journalist? ... 384
Telephone Records ... 385
SUMMARY ... 386
Legislative and Executive Protection of News Sources ... 387
Shield Laws ... 387
Federal Guidelines ... 390
Telephone Records ... 390
Newsroom Searches ... 391
How to Respond to a Subpoena ... 393
SUMMARY ... 394
The Contempt Power ... 395
History of Contempt ... 395
Kinds of Contempt ... 396
Limitations on Contempt Power ... 397
Collateral Bar Rule ... 402
SUMMARY ... 404
Bibliography ... 404
11 Free Press/Fair Trial : Trial Level Remedies and Restrictive Orders ... 407
Prejudicial Crime Reporting ... 408
Impact on Jurors ... 409
The Law and Prejudicial News ... 410
SUMMARY ... 411
Traditional Judicial Remedies ... 412
Voir Dire ... 412
Change of Venue ... 414
Continuance ... 415
Admonition to the Jury ... 415
Sequestration of the Jury ... 416
Court Proceedings and the Simpson Trials ... 417
SUMMARY ... 418
Restrictive Orders to Control Publicity ... 418
Restrictive Orders Aimed at the Press ... 421
Restrictive Orders Aimed ot Trial Participants ... 426
SUMMARY ... 430
Bibliography ... 431
12 Free Press/Fair Trial : Closed Judicial Proceedings ... 433
Closed Proceedings and Scaled Documents ... 434
Access to Trials ... 434
Closure of Other Hearings ... 437
Presumptively Open Hearings ... 441
Presumptively Open Documents ... 443
Access and the Broadcast Journalist ... 447
Recording and Televising Judicial Proceedings ... 450
SUMMARY ... 455
Bench-Bar-Press Guidelines ... 456
SUMMARY ... 457
Bibliography ... 457
13 Regulation of Obscene and Other Erotic Material ... 459
The Law of Obscenity ... 460
Early Obscenity Law ... 462
Defining Obscenity ... 463
SUMMARY ... 463
Contemporary Obscenity Law ... 464
The Miller Test ... 464
Other Standards ... 469
SUMMARY ... 473
Controlling Obscenity ... 474
Civil Nuisance Laws ... 475
RICO Statutes ... 476
Pastal Censorship ... 478
Film Censorship ... 478
SUMMARY ... 479
Regulation of Nonobscene Erotic Material ... 480
Zoning Laws ... 480
Cleaning Up the Post Exchange ... 483
Attacks on the Arts ... 484
Congress and Arts Funding ... 486
Erotic Materials in Cyberspace ... 487
Software Filters and the First Amendment ... 491
SUMMARY ... 493
Bibliography ... 494
14 Copyright ... 497
Immaterial Property Law ... 498
Patents ... 498
Trademarks ... 498
Plagiarism ... 502
Protecting Literary Property ... 503
Roots of the Law ... 505
What May Be Copyrighted ... 506
Telephone Books and Databases ... 510
News Events ... 511
Misappropriation ... 513
Duration of Copyright Protection ... 514
SUMMARY ... 515
Fair Use ... 515
Purpose and Character of Use ... 517
Nature of the Copyrighted Work ... 519
Amount of a Work Used ... 522
Effect of Use on Market ... 525
Application of the Criteria ... 527
SUMMARY ... 528
Copyright Protection and Infringement ... 528
Copyright Notice ... 529
Registration ... 530
Infringement ... 531
Copyright Infringement and the Internet ... 537
SUMMARY ... 539
Free-Lancing and Copyright ... 540
Damages ... 541
Bibliography ... 542
15 Regulation of Advertising ... 545
Advertising and the First Amendment ... 546
Commercial Speech Doctrine ... 548
Tobacco Advertising and the First Amendment ... 551
SUMMARY ... 553
The Regulation of Advertising ... 553
Self-Regulation ... 554
Lawsuits by Competitors and Consumers ... 554
State and Local Laws ... 557
Federal Regulation ... 558
SUMMARY ... 560
Federal Trade Commission ... 560
False Advertising Defined ... 562
Means to Police Deceptive Advertising ... 566
SUMMARY ... 573
The Regulatory Process ... 574
Procedures ... 574
Special Cases of Deceptive Advertising ... 575
Defenses ... 578
Advertising Agency/Publisher Liability ... 578
SUMMARY ... 580
Bibliography 580
16 Telecommunications Regulation : History and Licensing ... 583
History of Regulation ... 584
Changes in Philosophy, Changes in Rules ... 586
Deregulation by the FCC ... 586
The Telecommunication Act of 1996 ... 587
SUMMARY ... 588
Basic Broadcast Regulation ... 588
Federal Communications Commission ... 588
Licensing ... 590
SUMMARY ... 595
Bibliography ... 596
17 Telecommunications Regulation : Content Controls and Cable ... 597
Regulation of Program Content ... 598
Sanctions ... 598
Regulation of Children's Programming ... 600
Obscene or Indecent Material ... 602
Violence on Television ... 605
SUMMARY ... 607
Regulation of Political Programming ... 607
Candidate Access Rule ... 608
Equal Opportunity/Equal Time Rule ... 610
SUMMARY ... 616
News and Public Affairs ... 617
Other Content Regulations ... 619
Personal Attacks and Political Editorials ... 620
The First Amendment ... 621
SUMMARY ... 622
Regulation of New Technology ... 623
Cable Television ... 623
Federal Legislation Regulating Cable Television ... 623
Other Telecommunications Services ... 630
SUMMARY ... 631
Bibliography ... 631
Glossary ... 633
Table of Cases ... 641
Index ... 653
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