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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅴ
1 What Is Language? ... 1
LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE ... 2
WHAT YOU KNOW AND WHAT YOU DO : LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE ... 6
WHAT IS A GRAMMAR? ... 9
Summary ... 12
E...
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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅴ
1 What Is Language? ... 1
LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE ... 2
WHAT YOU KNOW AND WHAT YOU DO : LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE ... 6
WHAT IS A GRAMMAR? ... 9
Summary ... 12
Exercises ... 13
References ... 14
2 In the Beginning : Language Origin ... 15
GOD'S GIFT TO MAN? ... 17
THE FIRST LANGUAGE ... 19
MAN'S INVENTION OR THE CRIES OF NATURE? ... 22
MAN'S ORIGIN IS LANGUAGE ORIGIN ... 25
Summary ... 27
Exercises ... 28
References ... 29
3 The Sounds of Language : Phonetics ... 30
THE PHONETIC ALPHABET ... 32
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS ... 40
PHONETIC FEATURES ... 43
Airstream Mechanisms ... 43
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds ... 43
Nasal vs. Oral Sounds ... 45
Articulatory Modification of Sounds ... 47
Manners of Articulation ... 48
Vowels ... 54
NATURAL CLASSES ... 58
PITCH ... 60
Tone ... 60
Intonation ... 61
STRESS ... 62
Summary ... 64
Exercises ... 65
References ... 68
4 The Sound Patterns of Language : Phonology ... 69
PHONEMES : THE PHONOLOGICAL UNITS OF LANGUAGE ... 70
SEQUENCES OF PHONEMES ... 78
THE RULES OF PHONOLOGY ... 79
THE FORMALIZATION OF PHONOLOGICAL RULES ... 90
Summary ... 93
Exercises ... 94
References ... 99
5 What Does It Mean? ... 100
MORPHEMES : THE MINIMAL UNITS OF MEANING ... 101
MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX ... 106
THE MEANING OF MORPHEMES AND WORDS ... 108
HOMONYMS (HOMOPHONES) : SAME SOUNDS, DIFFERENT MEANINGS ... 111
SYNONYMS : DIFFERENT SOUNDS, SIMILAR MEANINGS ... 115
ANTONYMS : DIFFERENT SOUNDS, OPPOSITE MEANINGS ... 117
COMPOUNDS AND IDIOMS ... 119
SENSE AND REFERENCE ... 121
THE 'TRUTH' OF SENTENCES ... 122
MEANING, SENSE, NO SENSE, NONSENSE ... 125
THE MEANING OF 'MEANING' ... 128
Summary ... 130
Exercises ... 131
References ... 135
6 The Sentence Patterns of Language : Syntax ... 136
THE RULES OF SYNTAX ... 136
PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES ... 139
FITTING THE MORPHEMES IN ... 146
THE INFINITUDE OF LANGUAGE : RECURSIVE RULES ... 148
AMBIGUITY REVISITED ... 152
GENERATIVE GRAMMARS ... 154
TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES ... 156
MORE NONSENSE ... 163
WHAT A TRANSFORMATIONAL RULE LOOKS LIKE ... 164
A TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ... 166
Summary ... 167
Exercises ... 168
References ... 172
7 Animal 'Languages' ... 173
THE BIRDS AND THE BEES ... 176
DOLPHINS ... 180
CLEVER HANS ... 182
GUA, VIKI, WASHOE, SARAH ... 183
Summary 188 Exercises 188 References ... 189
8 The Syllables of Time : Language Change ... 191
KINDS OF LANGUAGE CHANGE ... 194
Phonological Change ... 194
Syntactic Change ... 197
Lexical Change ... 202
Semantic Change ... 207
WHY DO LANGUAGES CHANGE? ... 210
THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE ... 213
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE ... 216
LINGUISTIC PALEONTOLOGY ... 218
Summary ... 220
Exercises ... 220
References ... 222
9 The Tower of Babel : Languages of the World ... 224
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS ... 225
HOW LANGUAGES DIFFER ... 227
TYPES OF LANGUAGES ... 230
WHY LANGUAGES DIFFER AND YET REMAIN THE SAME ... 234
THE GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES ... 236
Summary ... 246
Exercises ... 247
References ... 251
10 The Diversity of Language ... 252
DIALECTS ... 252
REGIONAL DIALECTS AND ACCENTS ... 253
THE 'STANDARD' ... 257
BLACK ENGLISH ... 258
LINGUA FRANCAS ... 266
PIDGINS AND CREOLES ... 266
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES ... 269
ARGOT, CANT, JARGON, SLANG ... 271
LANGUAGE GAMES ... 273
Summary ... 275
Exercises ... 276
References ... 279
11 The ABCs of Language : Writing ... 280
THE HISTORY OF WRITING ... 282
Pictograms and Ideograms ... 283
Cuneiform Writing ... 285
The Rebus Principle ... 286
Syllabic Writing Systems ... 286
From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet ... 287
MODERN TYPES OF WRITING SYSTEMS ... 289
WRITING AND SPEECH ... 294
SPELLING ... 296
SPELLING PRONUNCIATIONS ... 300
GRAFFITI ... 302
Summary 303 Exercises 304 References ... 306
12 The Gray Matter of Language : Language and the Brain ... 307
LANGUAGE AND THE LEFT HEMISPHERE ... 308
THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE ... 316
Summary ... 323
Exercises ... 324
References ... 326
13 Language in the Computer Age ... 327
AUTOMATIC MACHINE TRANSLATION ... 328
DICTIONARY APPLICATIONS ... 332
TEXT PROCESSING ... 333
GRAMMAR TESTING ... 334
SENTENCE PARSING ... 335
TRANSFORMATIONAL PARSING ... 336
TALKING MACHINES ... 336
MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS ... 341
Summary ... 346
Exercises ... 347
References ... 349
Index ... 351
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