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Preface
1. Introduction / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 1
The Elements of The Second & Third Periods of the Periodic Table ... 1
Review of Organic Chemistry ... 2
Functional Groups Important in Ph...
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Preface
1. Introduction / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 1
The Elements of The Second & Third Periods of the Periodic Table ... 1
Review of Organic Chemistry ... 2
Functional Groups Important in Physiologic Chemistry ... 8
2. Water / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 12
Introduction ... 12
Molecular Structure of Water ... 12
Macromolecular Structure of Water ... 12
Hydrogen Bonds ... 13
Dissociation of Water ... 13
The Concept of pH ... 14
Protonic Equilibria of Functional Groups That Are Weak Acids or Bases ... 15
The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation ... 17
Buffers & Buffering ... 18
3. Amino Acids & Peptides / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 20
Introduction ... 20
Amino Acids ... 20
Protonic Equilibria of Amino Acids ... 20
Structures of Amino Acids ... 22
Optical Isomers of Amino Acids ... 27
Physical Properties of Amino Acids ... 27
Chemical Reactions of Amino Acids ... 28
Peptides ... 30
Determination of the Primary Structure of Peptides ... 32
Technics Used in Determining Primary Peptide Structures ... 36
Conformation of Peptides in Solution ... 37
Synthesis of Peptides ... 37
Physiologically Active Peptides ... 38
4. Proteins / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 40
Classification of Proteins ... 40
Size & Shape of Proteins ... 41
Bonds Responsible for Protein Structure ... 42
Orders of Protein Structure ... 43
Primary Structure of Proteins ... 45
Secondary & Tertiary Structure of Proteins ... 47
Quaternary Structure of Proteins ... 50
Denaturation of Proteins ... 51
Color Reactions of Proteins ... 51
5. General Properties of Enzymes / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 52
Catalysis ... 52
Coenzymes ... 52
Enzyme Specificity ... 54
Enzyme Classification & Nomenclature ... 56
Quantitative Measurement of Enzyme Activity ... 58
Isolation of Enzymes ... 58
Intracellular Distribution of Enzymes ... 60
6. Kinetic Properties of Enzymes / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 65
Kinetic Theory of Reaction ... 65
Effect of Reactant Concentration ... 66
Inhibition of Enzyme Activity ... 72
The Catalytic Site ... 76
Mechanism of Enzyme Action ... 81
Isozymes ... 84
7. Regulation of Enzyme Activity / Vivtor W.Rodwell, PhD ... 87
Physiologic Role of Metabolic Regulation ... 87
Available Options for Regulation of Enzymes ... 88
Regulation of Enzyme Quantity ... 88
Regulation of the Catalytic Efficiency of Enzymes ... 94
Regulation of Catalytic Efficiency : Availability of Reactants ... 95
Regulation of Catalytic Efficiency : Feedback Inhibition ... 97
Regulation of Catalytic Efficiency : Covalent Modification ... 103
8. Carbohydrates / Peter A.Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 104
Monosaccharides ... 107
Hexoses ... 107
Glycosides ... 108
Important Chemical Reactions of Monosaccharides ... 109
Deoxy Sugars ... 112
Amino Sugars(Hexosamines) ... 113
Disaccharides ... 113
Polysaccharides ... 113
Carbohydrates of Cell Membranes ... 116
9. Lipids / Peter A.Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 119
Fatty Acids ... 119
Triacylglycerols(Triglycerides) ... 121
Phospholipids ... 123
Cerebrosides(Glycolipids) ... 124
Steroids ... 125
The Plasma Lipoproteins ... 127
Characteristic Chemical Reactions & Properties of Lipids ... 128
The Cell Membranes ... 133
10. Nucleotides / Davis W.Martin, Jr.,MD ... 134
Nucleosides & Nucleotides ... 136
Naturally Occurring Nucleotides ... 139
Synthetic Derivatives ... 141
11. Nucleic Acids & Chromatin / Davis W.Martin, Jr.,MD ... 143
12. The Fat-Soluble Vitamins / Harold A.Harper, PhD ... 156
Vitamin A ... 156
The Vitamins D ... 159
The Vitamins E ... 162
The Vitamins K ... 164
13. The Water-Soluble Vitamins / Harold A.Harper, PhD ... 167
Vitamin C(Ascorbic Acid) ... 167
The Vitamins of the B Complex ... 168
Thiamin ... 169
Riboflavin ... 170
Niacin & Niacinamide ... 171
Pyridoxine ... 173
Pantothenic Acid ... 176
Lipoic Acid ... 177
Biotin ... 178
The Folic Acid Group ... 180
Inositol ... 183
Para-aminobenzoic Acid ... 183
Vitamin B₁₂ ... 184
Choline ... 188
14. The Blood, Lymph, & Cerebrospinal Fluid / Harold A.Harper, PhD ... 192
Blood ... 192
The Clotting of Blood ... 193
The Plasma Proteins ... 199
Hemoglobin ... 207
Metabolic Characteristics of the Erythrocyte ... 218
Blood(cont'd)
The Anemias ... 221
Blood Chemistry ... 223
Lymph ... 224
Cerebrospinal Fluid ... 224
15. The Chemistry of Respiration / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 225
Chemical & Physiologic Events Affecting Diffusion of Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide ... 225
Transport of Oxygen in Blood ... 229
Transport of CO₂ in Blood ... 231
Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance ... 233
16. Prophyrins & Bile Pigments / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 237
17. Digestion & Absorption From the Gastrointestinal Tract / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 256
Digestion in the Mouth ... 256
Digestion in the Stomach ... 256
Pancreatic & Intestinal Digestion ... 257
The Bile ... 261
Intestinal Putrefaction & Fermentation ... 265
Absorption From the Gastrointestinal Tract ... 266
18. Bioenergetics / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 272
Introduction ... 272
Role of High-Energy Phosphates in Bioenergetics & Energy Capture ... 274
19. Biologic Oxidation / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 278
Enzymes & Coenzymes Involved in Oxidation & Reduction ... 279
The Respiratory Chain ... 284
The Role of the Respiratory Chain in Energy Capture ... 287
Mechanisms of Oxidative Phosphorylation ... 289
The Chemical Hypothesis ... 289
The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis ... 293
20. The Citric Acid Cycle-The Catabolism of Acetyl-CoA / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 299
21. Metabolism of Carbohydrate / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 308
Intermediary Metabolism of Carbohyfrate ... 308
Glycolysis ... 309
Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA ... 313
Glycogen Formation & Degradation ... 314
Glycogenesis ... 315
Glycogenolysis ... 319
The Hexose Monophosphate Shunt or Pentose Phosphate Pathway ... 321
Gluconeogenesis ... 324
Metabolism of Hexoses ... 328
Other Pathways of Glucose Metabolism ... 328
The Uronic Acid Pathway ... 328
Metabolism of Fructose ... 330
Metabolism of Galactose ... 332
22. Metabolism of Lipids : I. Fatty Acids / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 336
Oxidation of Fatty Acids ... 337
Biosynthesis of Saturated Fatty Acids ... 342
Metabolism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids ... 345
The Essential Fatty Acids ... 348
Metabolism of Acylglycerols ... 351
Metabolism of Sphingolipids ... 356
Phospholipids & Sphingolipids in Disease(Lipidoses) ... 358
23. Metabolism of Lipids : Ⅱ. Role of Tissues / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 359
Metabolism of Adipose Tissue & the Mobilization of Fat ... 360
Metabolism of the Plasma Lipoproteins ... 365
Role of the Liver in Lipid Metabolism ... 370
Ketosis ... 374
Cholesterol Metabolism ... 377
24. Regulation of Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism / Peter A. Mayes, PhD, DSc ... 384
General Principles of Regulation of Metabolic Pathways ... 384
Identification of Nonequilibrium Reactions & Regulatory Enzymes ... 384
Metabolic Control of an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction ... 385
Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism ... 385
Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism at the Cellular & Enzymatic Level ... 385
Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism(cont'd)
The Blood Glucose ... 391
Regulation of Lipid Metabolism ... 394
Regulation of Ketogenesis ... 395
Interconversion of Major Foodstuffs ... 399
The Economics of Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism in the Whole Body ... 400
25. Biosynthesis of Amino Acids / Victor W. Rodwell, PhD ... 402
Amino Acid Metabolism ... 402
Nutritionally Essential & Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids ... 402
Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids ... 403
Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids Formed From Amphibolic Intermediates ... 403
Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids Formed From Other Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids ... 408
Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids Formed From Nutritionally Essential Amino Acids ... 410
Nutritionally Essential Amino Acids ... 411
Biosynthesis of Nutritionally Essential Amino Acids From Glutamate ... 411
Biosynthesis of Nutritionally Essential Amino Acids From Aspartate ... 412
Biosynthesis of Nutritionally Essential Amino Acids From Amphibolic Intermediates ... 413
26. Catabolism of Amino Acid Nitrogen / Victor W. Rodwell, PhD ... 416
Overall View ... 416
Transamination ... 416
Oxidative Deamination ... 418
L-Glutamate Dehydrogenase ... 418
Formation of Ammonia ... 419
Transport of Ammonia ... 419
Circadian Changes in Plasma Amino Acid Levels ... 421
Urea Synthesis ... 422
Regulation of Urea Synthesis ... 423
Metabolic Disorders Involving the Urea Cycle ... 423
27. Catabolism of the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids / Victor W. Rodwell, PhD ... 425
Conversion of Carbon Skeletons of Common L-α-Amino Acids to Amphibolic Intermediates ... 425
Amino Acids Forming Oxaloacetate ... 426
Amino Acids Forming α-Ketoglutarate ... 426
Amino Acids Forming Pyruvate ... 428
Amino Acids Forming Acetyl-Coenzyme A ... 430
Amino Acids Forming Succinyl-Coenzyme A ... 438
28. Conversion of Amino Acids to Specialized Products / Victor W. Rodwell, PhD ... 444
Glycine ... 444
Alanine ... 445
Serine ... 446
Threonine ... 446
Mrthionine ... 446
Cysteine ... 447
Arginine ... 447
Histidine ... 447
Tryptophan ... 449
Phenylalnine & Tyrosine ... 451
Metabolism of Creatine & Creatinine ... 452
29. Metabolism of Purine & Pyrimidine Nucleotides / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 455
30. Metabolism of Nucleic Acids / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 472
The Nature of DNA ... 472
Genetic Organization of the Mammalian Genome ... 474
DNA Metabolism ... 477
Alteration & Rearrangement of Genetic Meterial ... 482
Biologic Function of Ribonucleic Acid(RNA) ... 486
RNA Metabolism ... 486
Inhibitors of DNA & RNA Synthesis ... 493
Nucleases ... 493
31. Protein Synthesis & the Genetic Code / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 494
32. Regulation of Gene Expression / David W. Martin, Jr., MD ... 511
33. General Characteristics of Hormones / Gerold M. Grodsky, PhD ... 519
34. Chemistry & Functions of the Hormones : Ⅰ. Thyroid, Pancreas, Adrenal, & Gastrointestinal Tract / Gerold M. Grodsky, PhD ... 526
The Thyroid ... 526
The Parathyroids ... 531
The Pancreas ... 535
Insulin ... 535
Glucagon ... 546
Somatostatin ... 548
The Adrenals ... 548
The Adrenal Medulla ... 548
The Adrenal Cortex ... 553
The Organs Producing Sex Hormones ... 564
Male Hormones ... 564
Female Hormones ... 566
The Gastrointestinal Hoemones ... 569
35. Chemistry & Functions of the Hormones : Ⅱ. Pituitary & Hypothalamus / Gerold M. Grodsky, PhD ... 574
36. Water & Mineral Metabolism / Davis D. Tyler, MA, PhD ... 588
Water Metabolism ... 588
Mineral Metabolism ... 593
Calcium ... 594
Phosphorus ... 595
Magnesium ... 596
Sodium ... 597
Potassium ... 598
The Sodium-Potassium Pump ... 599
Lithium ... 600
Chlorine ... 600
Sulfur ... 601
Trace Elements ... 601
Essential Trace Elements ... 601
Iron ... 601
Copper ... 604
Trace Elements(cont'd)
Iodine ... 606
Manganese ... 606
Cobalt ... 606
Zinc ... 607
Fluorine ... 608
Molybdenum ... 608
Selenium ... 608
Chromium ... 610
Possibly Essential Trace Elements ... 610
Nonessential Trace Elements ... 610
Aluminum ... 610
Boron ... 610
Cadmium ... 610
Other Nonessential Trace Elements ... 611
37. Calorimetry : Elements of Nutrition / Harold A. Harper, PhD ... 612
Basal Metabolism ... 614
Measurement of Energy Requirements ... 616
Specific Dynamic Action(SDA) ... 616
The Elements of Nutrition ... 617
38. Immunochemistry / Kent R. Cochrum, DVM ... 629
Structure of Immunoglobulins ... 630
Electrophretic Determination of Immunoglobulins ... 633
Quantitative Immunoglobulin Determinations(Radial Diffusion Technic) ... 635
Antigens ... 636
Antigenic Determinants ... 638
Immunopotency ... 640
39. The Kidney & the Urine / John David Wallin, MD ... 642
Formation of Urine ... 642
Acidification of the Urine ... 654
Abnormalities of Acid-Base Regulation by the Kidney ... 655
Mechanism of Action of Diuretics ... 657
Tests of Renal Function ... 658
Composition of Urine ... 660
Hormones of the Kidney ... 664
40. Muscle Tissue / Harold A. Harper, PhD ... 669
Muscle Structure ... 669
The Proteins in Muscle ... 670
Molecular Events in Muscle Contraction ... 673
Muscle Metabolism ... 673
Muscle Phosphagens ... 674
Inorganic Constituents of Muscle ... 675
41. Epithelial, Connective, & Nerve Tissues / Harold A. Harper, PhD ... 676
Epithelial Tissue ... 676
Connective Tissue ... 676
Nerve Tissue ... 684
Abbreviations Encountered in Physiologic Chemistry ... 689
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