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CONTENTS
Preface ... xiii
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to the Atmosphere ... 1
The Earths Four Spheres ... 2
Weather and Climate ... 3
The Atmosphere and Environmental Issues ... 4
Compositio...
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CONTENTS
Preface ... xiii
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to the Atmosphere ... 1
The Earths Four Spheres ... 2
Weather and Climate ... 3
The Atmosphere and Environmental Issues ... 4
Composition of the Atmosphere ... 5
The Ozone Problem ... 7
Origin of the Atmosphere ... 10
Exploring the Atmosphere ... 11
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere ... 14
Temperature Changes in the Vertical ... 16
Vertical Variations in Composition ... 19
The Ionosphere ... 20
Review ... 22
Problems ... 23
Vocabulary Review ... 23
CHAPTER TWO Solar and Terrestrial Radiation ... 24
Earth-Sun Relationships ... 25
Motions of Earth ... 25
The Seasons ... 25
Heat and Temperature ... 33
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer ... 33
Conduction ... 33
Convection ... 34
Radiation ... 34
Incoming Solar Radiation ... 38
Scattering ... 38
Reflection ... 39
Absorption within the Atmosphere ... 41
Terrestrial Radiation ... 42
Heat Budget ... 45
Latitudinal Heat Balance ... 46
Review ... 49
Problems ... 49
Vocabulary Review ... 50
CHAPTER THREE Temperature ... 51
Air Temperature Data ... 52
Controls of Temperature ... 55
Land and Water ... 55
Ocean Currents ... 58
Altitude ... 59
Geographic Position ... 59
Cloud Cover and Albedo ... 60
World Distribution of Temperatures ... 61
Cycles of Air Temperature ... 63
Applications of Temperature Data ... 67
Temperature Measurement ... 69
Temperature Scales ... 72
Review ... 74
Problems ... 75
Vocabulary Review ... 75
CHAPTER FOUR Moisture and Atmospheric Stability ... 76
The Hydrologic Cycle ... 77
Changes of State ... 78
Humidity ... 79
Humidity Measurement ... 86
Condensation Aloft and Adiabatic Temperature Changes ... 90
Atmospheric Stability ... 92
Determination of Stability ... 92
Stability and Daily Weather ... 95
Changes in Stability ... 96
Lifting Processes ... 99
Convective Lifting ... 99
Orographic Lifting ... 99
Frontal Wedging ... 100
Convergence ... 101
Review ... 104
Problems ... 104
Vocabulary Review ... 105
CHAPTER FIVE Forms of Condensation and Precipitation ... 106
Condensation and Cloud Formation ... 107
Clouds ... 108
Cloud Classifications ... 109
Cloud Dscriptions ... 109
Clouds of Vertical Development ... 110
Cloud Varieties ... 113
Fog ... 115
Fogs Formed by Cooling ... 115
Fogs Formed by Evaporation ... 117
Minor Forms of Condensation ... 118
Formation of Precipitation ... 119
Bergeron Process ... 119
Collision-Coalescence ... 121
Forms of Precipitation ... 124
Rain ... 124
Snow ... 126
Sleet and Glaze ... 127
Hail ... 128
Rime ... 128
Precipitation Measurement ... 129
Standard Instruments ... 129
Weather Radar ... 130
Intentional Weather Modification ... 132
Cloud Seeding ... 133
Fog and Cloud Dispersal ... 134
Hail Suppression ... 135
Frost Prevention ... 136
Review ... 138
Problems ... 139
Vocabulary Review ... 139
CHAPTER SIX Air Pressure and Winds ... 140
Air Pressure ... 141
Factors Affecting Air Pressure ... 142
Pressure Changes with Altitude ... 142
Measuring Air Pressure ... 144
Factors Affecting Wind ... 147
Pressure-Gradient Force ... 147
Coriolis Effect ... 149
Friction ... 151
Winds Aloft and Geostrophic Flow ... 154
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind ... 156
Surface Winds ... 158
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion ... 159
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones ... 160
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow ... 161
Wind Measurement ... 161
Review ... 165
Problems ... 165
Vocabulary Review ... 166
CHAPTER SEVEN Circulation of the Atmosphere ... 167
Scales of Atmospheric Motions ... 168
Local Winds ... 170
Land and Sea Breezes ... 171
Mountain and Valley Breezes ... 172
Chinook (Foehn) Winds ... 172
Katabic (Fall) Winds ... 174
Global Circulation ... 174
Observed Distribution of Surface Pressure and Winds ... 176
Monsoon Circulation ... 179
The Westerlies ... 180
Why Westerlies? ... 180
Jet Streams ... 182
Jet Streams and Waves in the Westerlies ... 184
Westerlies and the Earths Heat Budget ... 186
Global Wind and Ocean Currents ... 188
The Importance of Ocean Currents ... 189
Ocean Currents and Upwelling ... 189
El Ni n ~ o and Global Weather ... 189
Global Distribution of Precipitation ... 192
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation ... 192
Distribution of Precipitation Over the Continents ... 195
Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent ... 196
Review ... 199
Vocabulary Review ... 200
CHAPTER EIGHT Air Masses ... 201
Source Regions ... 202
Classifying Air Masses ... 204
Air-Mass Modification ... 205
Properties of North American Air Masses ... 205
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses ... 206
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses ... 207
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses ... 209
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses ... 214
Review ... 214
Vocabulary Review ... 214
CHAPTER NINE Weather Patterns ... 215
Polar-Front Theory ... 218
Fronts ... 220
Warm Fronts ... 220
Cold Fronts ... 221
Stationary Fronts ... 224
Occluded Fronts ... 224
Wave Cyclone ... 225
Life Cycle of a Wave Cyclone ... 225
Idealized Weather of a Wave Cyclone ... 229
Cyclogenesis ... 230
Formation of Cyclones and Anticyclones ... 231
Divergence and Convergence Aloft ... 233
Developing Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Flow ... 233
Traveling Cyclones and Anticyclones ... 234
Patterns of Movement ... 234
Weather of a Wave Cyclone ... 238
The Violent Spring of 75 ... 239
Weather in Peoria ... 243
Review ... 245
Vocabulary Review ... 245
CHAPTER TEN Thunderstorms and Tornadoes ... 246
Whats in a Name? ... 247
Thunderstorms ... 249
Stages in the Development of a Thunderstorm ... 250
Thunderstorm Formation ... 251
Lightning and Thunder ... 257
Tornadoes ... 259
The Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes ... 260
Tornado Destruction ... 265
Predicting Tornadoes ... 268
Doppler Radar ... 269
Review ... 273
Problems ... 273
Vocabulary Review ... 274
CHAPTER ELEVEN Hurricanes ... 275
Profile of a Hurricane ... 278
Hurricane Formation and Decay ... 281
Hurricane Destruction ... 283
Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes ... 286
The Role of Satellites ... 286
Aircraft Reconnaissance ... 287
Radar and Data Buoys ... 288
Hurricane Watches and Warnings ... 288
Hurricane Modification ... 291
Review ... 292
Problems ... 293
Vocabulary Review ... 293
CHAPTER TWELVE Weather Analysis and Forecasting ... 294
Weather Analysis ... 295
Gathering Data ... 296
Constructing a Synoptic Weather Chart ... 297
Available Weather Charts ... 298
Weather Forecasting ... 300
Synoptic Weather Forecasting ... 300
Numerical Weather Prediction ... 302
Statistical Methods ... 304
Methods of Short-Range Forecasting ... 304
Long-Range Forecasts ... 305
Forecast Accuracy ... 306
Tools in Weather Forecasting ... 308
Satellites in Weather Forecasting ... 309
What Weather Satellites Reveal ... 311
Measurement by Satellite ... 313
Weather Forecasting and Upper-Level Flow ... 314
The Winter of 1977 ... 314
What Causes the Fluctuations? ... 317
Review ... 317
Problems ... 317
Vocabulary Review ... 319
CHAPTER 13 Air Pollution ... 320
A Brief Historical Perspective ... 321
Sources and Types of Air Pollution ... 324
Primary Pollutants ... 324
Secondary Pollutants ... 326
Air Quality Trends ... 327
Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution ... 330
Wind as a Factor ... 330
The Role of Atmospheric Stability ... 331
Acid Precipitation ... 333
Review ... 336
Vocabulary Review ... 336
CHAPTER FOURTEEN The Changing Climate ... 337
Is Our Climate Changing? ... 338
Detecting Climate Change ... 340
Natural Causes of Climate Change ... 343
Plate Tectonics and Climate Change ... 343
Volcanic Activity and Climate ... 346
Astronomical Theory ... 347
Solar Variability and Climate ... 350
Human Impact on Global Climate ... 351
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change ... 352
Climatic Feedback Mechanisms ... 355
Some Possible Consequences of Greenhouse Warming ... 356
The Climate of Cities ... 360
The Urban Heat Island ... 360
Urban-Induced Precipitation ... 363
Other Urban Effects ... 363
Review ... 365
Vocabulary ... 365
CHAPTER FIFTEEN World Climates ... 366
Climatic Classification ... 367
Climatic Controls: A Summary ... 371
Latitude ... 371
Land and Water ... 371
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds ... 372
Mountains and Highlands ... 372
Ocean Currents ... 372
Pressure and Wind Systems ... 372
The Wet Tropics ... 373
Temperature Characteristics ... 375
Precipitation Characteristics ... 376
Tropical Wet and Dry ... 377
Temperature Characteristics ... 378
Precipitation Characteristic ... 378
The Monsoon ... 379
The Cw Variant ... 380
The Dry Climates ... 380
What is Meant by "Dry"? ... 381
Subtropical Desert and Steppe ... 382
West Coast Subtropical Deserts ... 385
Middle-Latitude Desert and Steppe ... 385
The Humid Subtropical Climate ... 387
The Marine West Coast Climate ... 389
The Dry-Summer Subtropical Climate ... 390
The Humid Continental Climate ... 391
The Subarctic Climate ... 394
The Polar Climates ... 394
The Tundra Climate ... 395
Ice Cap Climate ... 397
Highland Climates ... 398
Review ... 400
Problems ... 402
Vocabulary Review ... 402
CHAPTER SIXTEEN Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere ... 403
Nature of Light ... 404
Reflection ... 404
Refraction ... 405
Mirages ... 407
Rainbows ... 409
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars ... 412
The Glory ... 415
The Corona ... 415
Review ... 416
Vocabulary Review ... 418
APPENDIX A Metric Units ... 419
APPENDIX B Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map ... 423
APPENDIX C Correcting Mercurial Barometer Readings ... 430
APPENDIX D Laws Relating to Gases ... 435
APPENDIX E Climatic Data ... 437
GLOSSARY ... 443
INDEX ... 457
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