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CONTENTS
Foreword ... xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction ... 1
1.1 Brief History of Ergonomics ... 3
1.2 The Interdisciplinary Nature of Ergonomics ... 4
1.3 Ergonomics for Productivity, Safety, He...
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CONTENTS
Foreword ... xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction ... 1
1.1 Brief History of Ergonomics ... 3
1.2 The Interdisciplinary Nature of Ergonomics ... 4
1.3 Ergonomics for Productivity, Safety, Health and Comfort ... 4
Chapter 2. Case Studies of Implementation of Ergonomics in Manufacturing ... 7
2.1 Ergonomic Improvements in Card Assembly ... 7
2.1.1 Design Improvements ... 8
2.1.1.1 Illumination Level ... 8
2.1.1.2 Special Lighting for Inspection ... 8
2.1.1.3 Job Rotation and Shift Overlap ... 9
2.1.1.4 Personal Music ... 9
2.1.1.5 Ergonomic Chairs ... 9
2.1.1.6 Operator Communication and Feedback ... 9
2.1.1.7 Materials Handling ... 9
2.1.1.8 Automation of Monotonous Jobs ... 9
2.1.1.9 Metric to Decimal Conversion ... 9
2.1.1.10 Housekeeping ... 9
2.1.1.11 Noise Reduction ... 10
2.1.1.12 Ergonomics Training ... 10
2.1.1.13 Continuous Flow Manufacturing ... 10
2.1.1.14 Evaluation of Protective Gloves ... 10
2.1.2 Specific Problems ... 10
2.1.3 Cost Efficiency of Improvements ... 10
2.2 Ergonomic Improvements in the Assembly of a Printer ... 12
2.2.1 Task Considerations ... 12
2.2.2 Workstation Ergonomics ... 13
2.2.3 Design of Tools and Controls ... 14
2.2.4 Discussion ... 14
Chapter 3. Anthropometry in Workstation Design ... 17
3.1 Measuring Human Dimensions ... 17
3.2 Definition of Anthropometric Measures ... 21
3.3 Using Anthropometric Measures for Industrial Design ... 24
3.4 Procedure for Anthropometric Design ... 25
3.4.1 Exercise : Designing a Microscope Workstation ... 27
Chapter 4. Physical Work and Heat Stress ... 29
4.1 Physical Workload and Energy Expenditure ... 29
4.1.1 Metabolism ... 29
4.1.2 Individual Differences ... 30
4.1.3 Metabolism During Work ... 30
4.1.3.1 Example : Calculation of Relative Workload ... 32
4.1.4 Measurement of Physical Workload ... 33
4.1.4.1. Example : Fatigue Due to Physical Workload ... 33
4.2 Heat Stress ... 33
4.2.1 Thermeregulation ... 33
4.2.2 Measurement of Heat Exposure ... 34
4.2.3 Wet Bub Globe Temperature ... 34
4.2.4 Heat Stress Management ... 35
4.2.5 Comfort Climate ... 36
4.2.5.1 Example : Discussion of Heat Stress Measures ... 37
Chapter 5. Manual Lifting ... 39
5.1 Statistics of Back Injuries Associated with Lifting ... 39
5.2 A Biomechanical Model for Lifting ... 41
5.3 The So-called Correct Lifting Technique ... 43
5.4 Guidelines and Standards for Lifting ... 46
5.4.1 1991 Nosh-Equation for Evaluation of Manual Lifting ... 46
5.4.1.1 Example : Loading Punch Press Stock ... 48
5.4.1.2 Example : Product Packaging ... 49
5.4.1.3 Lifting Index ... 50
5.4.2 Guidelines for the European Community ... 50
5.4.3 Guidelines for Manual Lifting in the UK ... 50
5.5 Materials Handling Aids ... 50
5.5.1 Materials Handling Devices ... 52
5.6 Recommended Reading ... 54
Chapter 6. Choice of Work Posture : Standing, Sitting, or Standing? ... 55
6.1 Examples of Work Posture ... 55
6.2 Identifying Poor Postures ... 58
6.2.1 Example : Sitting in India ... 58
6.3 Sitting, Standing or Sit-Standing ... 59
6.4 Hand Height and Determination of Table Height ... 60
6.4.1 Example 1 ... 62
6.4.2 Example 2 ... 62
6.4.3 Example 3 ... 62
6.5 Work at Conveyors ... 63
Chapter 7. Repetitive Motion Injury ... 65
7.1 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome ... 65
7.2 Cubital Tunnel Syndrome ... 67
7.3 Tendonitis(or Tenoinitis) ... 88
7.4 Tenosynovitis(or Tendosynovitis) ... 68
7.5 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome ... 68
7.6 Cause of Repetitives Motion Injury ... 69
7.7 Design Guidelines to Minimize Repetitive Motion Injury ... 71
Chapter 8. Hand Tool Design ... 73
8.1 Fitting the Task ... 73
8.2 Designing for the User ... 74
8.3 Prevention of Injuries ... 75
8.4 Segmental Vibration ... 77
8.5 Design Guidelines : for Hand Tools ... 78
Chapter 9. Illumination at Work ... 79
9.1 Measurement of Illuminance and Luminance ... 79
9.2 Measurement of Contrast ... 80
9.2.1 Example : Contrast Requirements in Manufacturing ... 80
9.3 Use of a Photometer ... 81
9.4 Recommended Illumination Levels ... 82
9.5 The Ageing Eye ... 83
9.6 Use off Indirect (Reflected) Lighting ... 86
9.7 Cost Efficiency of Illumination ... 87
9.8 Special Purpose Lighting for Inspection and Quality Control ... 89
Chapter 10. Design of VDT Workstations ... 91
10.1 Sitting Work Posture ... 91
10.1.1 Viewing Angle ... 91
10.1.2 Thigh Clearance and Low-profile Keyboards ... 91
10.1.3 Chair Design ... 92
10.1.4 Supports for the Hands, Arms and Feet ... 83
10.1.5 Viewing Distance ... 94
10.2 Visual Fatigue ... 94
10.3 Effect of Radiation ... 95
10.4 Reducing Reflections and Glare on VDT Screens ... 96
10.4.1 Example : Calculating the Effect of a Neutral Density Filter on the Display contrast Ratio ... 99
Chapter 11. Design of Controls ... 101
11.1 Appropriateness of Manual Controls for the Task ... 101
11.2 Computer Input Devices ... 103
11.3 Control Movements Stereotypes ... 104
11.3.1 Example : Controls for an Overhead Crane in Manufacturing ... 105
11.4 Control-Response Compatibility ... 106
11.5 Coding of Controls, Hand, Tools, Part Bins and Parts ... 108
11.5.1 Coding by Location ... 108
11.5.2 Coding by Colour ... 108
11.5.3 Coding by Size ... 108
11.5.4 Coding by Shape ... 109
11.5.5 Coding by Labelling ... 110
11.5.6 Coding by Mode of Operation ... 110
11.5.7 Coding of Parts and Other Things Touched by the Hand ... 110
11.6 Emergency Controls ... 111
11.7 Organization of Items at a Workstation ... 111
11.8 Principles for the Design of Workstations ... 112
11.9 Recommended Reading ... 114
Chapter 12. Design of Symbols, Labels and Visual Displays ... 115
12.1 Symbols ... 115
12.1.1 Example : Standardization of Symbols ... 115
12.2 Labels and Written Signs ... 117
12.3 Warning Signs ... 117
12.3.1 Warning Signs ... 118
12.3.1.1 Information Overload ... 118
12.3.1.2 Attention and Active Processing ... 118
12.3.1.3 Comprehension and Agreement ... 119
12.3.1.4 Selecting and Performing a Response ... 120
Chapter 13. Development of Training Programmes and Skill Development ... 121
13.1 Establishing the Need for Training ... 121
13.2 Determining Training Content and Training Methods ... 122
13.3 The 'Why?','What?' and 'How?' of Training Development ... 123
13.4 Use of Task Analysis ... 124
13.7 Use of Job Aids ... 126
13.7.1 Example : Remembering Error Codes ... 127
13.7.2 Example : Study of Job Aids ... 127
13.8 The Power Law of Practice ... 128
13.8.1 Example : Prediction of Future Assembly Time ... 129
13.9 Recommended Reading ... 130
Chapter 14. Noise ... 131
14.1 Measurement of Sound ... 131
14.1.1 Example : Calculation of Noise Dose ... 132
14.2 Noise Exposure and Hearing Loss ... 133
14.3 Hearing Protectors ... 134
14.4 Analysis and Reduction of Noise ... 134
14.4.1 Reduction of Noise in Manufacturing Plant ... 136
14.5 Effects of Noise on Performance ... 136
14.5.1 Broadbent and Poulton's Theories ... 138
14.5.2 Example : Discussion of Theories ... 139
14.6 Annoyance of Noise and Interference with Communication ... 139
14.6.1 Interference of Noise with Spoken Communication ... 140
14.6.1.1 Preferred Noise Criteria(PNC) Curves ... 140
14.6.1.2 Preferred Speech Interference Lever(PSIL) ... 141
Chapter 15. Shift Work ... 143
15.1 Example : How Not to Schedule Shift Work ... 144
15.2 Circadian Rhythms ... 144
15.3 Problems with Shift Work ... 145
15.4 Effects on Performance and Productivity ... 146
15.5 Improving Shift Work ... 147
15.5.1 Type of Work ... 147
15.5.2 Shift Work Schedules ... 148
15.5.3 Selecting Individuals for Shift Work ... 149
15.6 Recommended Reading ... 150
Chapter 16. Whole Body Vibration ... 151
16.1 Sources of Vibration Discomfort ... 151
Chapter 17. Design for Manufacturing Assembly ... 155
17.1 The Desire to Automate ... 155
17.2 What to Do and What to Avoid in Product Design ... 157
17.2.1 Using a Base Part as the Product Foundation and Fixture ... 157
17.2.2 Minimizing the Number of Components and Parts ... 158
17.2.3 Facilitating Handling of Parts ... 159
17.2.4 Facilitating Orientation of Parts ... 160
17.2.5 Facilitating Assembly ... 161
17.2.6 Consideration of Stability and Durability ... 161
17.3 Designing Automation using Boothroyd's Principle ... 163
17.4 MTM Analysis of an Assemble Process ... 163
17.5 Human Factors Principles in Design for Assembly ... 165
17.5.1 Example : Design for Job Satisfaction ... 169
Chapter 18. Design for Maintainability ... 171
18.1 Ease of Fault Identification ... 171
18.2 Design for Testability and Troubleshooting ... 173
18.3 Design for Accessibility ... 174
18.4 Design for Ease of Manipulation ... 174
18.5 Summary ... 174
Chapter 19. Machine and Robot Safety ... 177
19.1 Safety Devices ... 177
19.1.1 Physical Barriers ... 177
19,1.2 Photoelectric Beams ... 178
19.1.3 Pressure-sensitive Mats ... 178
19.1.4 Infrared Sensors ... 179
19.1.5 Cameras and Image Processing ... 179
19.1.6 Ultrasound(Sonar) ... 179
19.1.7 Capacitive Sensors ... 179
19.2 Example : Case Study of Robot Safety at IBM Corporation/Lexmark ... 180
19.3 Recommended Reading ... 180
References ... 131
Appendix
The Use of an Ergonomics Checklist in Manufacturing ... 197
Index ... 205
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