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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅹ
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY ... 1
CHAPTER 1 Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry ... 2
Introduction : Why Study Research Methods? ... ...
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CONTENTS
Preface ... ⅹ
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY ... 1
CHAPTER 1 Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry ... 2
Introduction : Why Study Research Methods? ... 3
What Is This Book About? ... 3
Two Realities ... 3
Box : Home Detention ... 4
The Role of Science ... 6
Personal Human Inquiry ... 6
Tradition ... 7
Authority ... 7
Box : Arrest and Domestic Violence ... 8
Errors in Personal Human Inquiry ... 8
Inaccurate Observation ... 8
Overgeneralization ... 9
Selective Observation ... 10
Illogical Reasoning ... 10
Ideology and Politics ... 10
To Err Is Human ... 10
The Foundations of Social Science ... 11
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief ... 11
Regularities ... 13
What About Exceptions? ... 13
Aggregates, Not Individuals ... 13
A Variable Language ... 14
Variables and Attributes ... 15
Variables and Relationships ... 16
Purposes of Research ... 18
Exploration ... 18
Description ... 18
Explanation ... 18
Application ... 20
Differing Avenues for Inquiry ... 20
Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanations ... 20
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning ... 22
Quantitative and Qualitative Data ... 22
Why Did Crime Go Down(or Up)? ... 24
Ethics and Criminal Justice Research ... 24
Knowing Through Experience : Summing Up and Looking Ahead ... 26
Main Points ... 26
Key Terms ... 27
Review Questions and Exercises ... 27
Additional Readings ... 27
CHAPTER 2 Theory and Criminal Justice Research ... 29
Introduction ... 30
The Creation of Social Science Theory ... 30
The Traditional Model of Science ... 30
Two Logical Systems ... 34
Box : Grounded Theory and Community Prosecution ... 38
Terms Used in Theory Construction ... 39
Theory in Criminal Justice ... 42
Law Breaking ... 43
Policy Responses ... 45
Theory, Research, and Public Policy ... 45
New York's Secret? Purposive Action ... 46
Ecological Theories of Crime and Crime Prevention Policy ... 48
Main Points ... 49
Key Terms ... 49
Review Questions and Exercises ... 49
Additional Readings ... 50
CHAPTER 3 Causation and Validity ... 51
Introduction ... 52
Determinism and Social Science ... 52
Causation in the Natural Sciences ... 52
Finding Causes in Social Science ... 52
Reasons Have Reasons ... 53
Determinism in Perspective ... 54
Idiographic and Nomothetic Models of Explanation ... 54
Criteria for Causality ... 56
Necessary and Sufficient Causes ... 56
Box : Correlation and Causality ... 58
Molar, Not Micromedial, Causal Statements ... 58
Errors of Reasoning ... 60
Validity and Causal Inference ... 60
Statistical Conclusion Validity ... 61
Internal Validity ... 62
Construct Validity ... 62
External Validity ... 63
Causation and Declining Crime ... 64
Validity and Causal Inference Summarized ... 65
Does Drug Use Cause Crime? ... 66
Linking Measurement and Association ... 67
The Traditional Deductive Model ... 67
The Interchangeability of Indexes ... 69
Main Points ... 70
Key Terms ... 71
Review Questions and Exercises ... 71
Additional Readings ... 71
PART 2 STRUCTURING CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY ... 73
CHAPTER 4 General Issues in Research Design ... 74
Introduction ... 75
Units of Analysis ... 75
Individuals ... 76
Groups ... 76
Organizations ... 77
Social Artifacts ... 78
Units of Analysis in Review ... 78
The Ecological Fallacy ... 79
Reductionism ... 80
The Time Dimension ... 81
Cross-Sectional Studies ... 81
Box : Units of Analysis in the National Youth Gang Survey ... 82
Longitudinal Studies ... 82
Approximating Longitudinal Studies ... 84
Retrospective Studies ... 85
The Time Dimension Summarized ... 88
How to Design a Research Project ... 88
The Research Process ... 88
Getting Started ... 90
Conceptualization ... 91
Choice of Research Method ... 91
Operationalization ... 92
Population and Sampling ... 92
Observations ... 92
Data Processing ... 93
Analysis ... 93
Application ... 93
Review ... 93
The Research Proposal ... 95
Elements of a Research Proposal ... 95
Units and Time in New York ... 96
Answers to Units of Analysis Exercise ... 97
Main Points ... 97
Key Terms ... 98
Review Questions and Exercises ... 98
Additional Readings ... 98
CHAPTER 5 Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement ... 100
Introduction ... 101
Conceptions and Concepts ... 101
Conceptualization ... 102
Indicators and Dimensions ... 103
Confusion Over Definitions and Reality ... 104
Creating Conceptual Order ... 104
Operationalization Choices ... 106
Measurement as "Scoring" ... 107
Box : What Is Recidivism? ... 108
Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement ... 108
Box : Jail Stay ... 110
Levels of Measurement ... 110
Implications of Levels of Measurement ... 112
What's a Police Activity? ... 114
Criteria for Measurement Quality ... 114
Reliability ... 116
Validity ... 118
Composite Measures ... 121
Typologies ... 121
An Index of Disorder ... 122
Measurement Summary ... 124
Main Points ... 124
Key Terms ... 125
Review Questions and Exercises ... 125
Additional Readings ... 125
CHAPTER 6 Measuring Crime ... 127
Introduction ... 128
General Issues in Measuring Crime ... 128
What Offenses? ... 128
What Units of Analysis? ... 129
What Purpose? ... 129
Box : Units of Analysis and Measuring Crime ... 130
Crimes Known to Police ... 131
Uniform Crime Reports ... 132
UCR and Criteria for Measurement Quality ... 133
Incident-Based Police Records ... 134
National Incident-Based Reporting System ... 134
NIBRS and Criteria for Measurement Quality ... 136
Measuring Crime Through Victim Surveys ... 137
National Crime Victimization Survey ... 137
NCVS Redesign ... 139
Community Victimization Surveys ... 141
Comparing Victim Surveys and Crimes Known to Police ... 142
Surveys of Offending ... 143
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse ... 144
Monitoring the Future ... 145
Validity and Reliability of Self-Report Measures ... 146
Self-Report Surveys Summarized ... 146
Drug Surveillance Systems ... 147
Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring ... 147
Drug Abuse Warning Network ... 148
Pulse Check ... 149
Measuring Crime for Specific Purposes ... 150
Crime Surveys ... 150
Incident-Based Crime Records ... 151
Observing Crime ... 151
Measuring Crime in New York ... 152
Measuring Crime : Summary ... 154
Main Points ... 155
Key Terms ... 155
Review Questions and Exercises ... 155
Additional Readings ... 156
CHAPTER 7 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs ... 157
Introduction ... 158
The Classical Experiment ... 158
Independent and Dependent Variables ... 159
Pretesting and Posttesting ... 159
Experimental and Control Groups ... 160
Double-Blind Experiment ... 161
Selecting Subjects ... 162
Randomization ... 163
Experiments and Causal Inference ... 163
Experiments and Threats to Validity ... 164
Threats to Internal Validity ... 164
Ruling Out Threats to Internal Validity ... 167
Generalizability ... 169
Threats to Construct Validity ... 169
Threats to External Validity ... 170
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity ... 171
Variations in the Classical Experimental Design ... 171
Quasi-Experimental Designs ... 173
Nonequivalent-Groups Designs ... 173
Cohort Designs ... 176
Time-Series Designs ... 177
Variations in Time-Series Designs ... 180
Gun Control, Homicide, and Suicide ... 181
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs Summarized ... 183
A Variety of Designs in New York ... 184
Main Points ... 184
Key Terms ... 184
Review Questions and Exercises ... 184
Additional Readings ... 186
CHAPTER 8 Ethics and Criminal Justice Research ... 187
Introduction ... 188
Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research ... 188
No Harm to Participants ... 139
Voluntary Participation ... 191
Anonymity and Confidentiality ... 192
Deceiving Subjects ... 193
Analysis and Reporting ... 193
Legal Liability ... 194
Special Problems ... 194
Promoting Compliance with Ethical Principles ... 197
Institutional Review Boards ... 197
Box : Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members ... 200
Institutional Review Board Requirements and Researcher Rights ... 200
Two Ethical Controversies ... 201
Trouble in the Tearoom ... 201
Confidentiality in Police Research ... 202
Simulating a Prison ... 204
Discussion Examples ... 206
Main Points ... 207
Key Terms ... 207
Review Questions and Exercises ... 207
Additional Readings ... 208
PART 3 MODES OF OBSERVATION ... 209
CHAPTER 9 Overview of Data Collection and Sampling ... 210
Introduction ... 211
Three Sources of Data ... 211
Asking Questions ... 211
Direct Observations ... 212
Examining Written Records ... 212
Using Multiple Data Sources ... 213
General Issues in Data Collection ... 213
Using Three Types of Data in New York City ... 214
Measurement Validity and Reliability ... 214
Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Measures ... 215
Box : Multiple Measures in Home Detention ... 216
Be Careful, But Be Creative ... 218
The Logic of Probability Sampling ... 218
Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias ... 218
Representativeness and Probability of Selection ... 220
Probability Sampling Theory and Sampling Distributions ... 221
The Sampling Distribution of Ten Cases ... 222
From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate ... 223
Estimating Sampling Error ... 226
Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals ... 228
Random Sampling and Probability Theory Summed Up ... 228
Populations and Sampling Frames ... 229
Types of Sampling Designs ... 230
Simple Random Sampling ... 230
Systematic Sampling ... 230
Stratified Sampling ... 230
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling ... 232
Multistage Cluster Sampling ... 232
Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification ... 234
Illustration : Two National Crime Surveys ... 234
National Crime Victimization Survey ... 236
British Crime Survey ... 236
Probability Sampling in Review ... 238
Nonprobability Sampling ... 238
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling ... 238
Quota Sampling ... 239
Sampling New York City Police Precincts ... 240
Reliance on Available Subjects ... 240
Snowball Sampling ... 241
Nonprobability Sampling in Review ... 242
Main Points ... 242
Key Terms ... 244
Review Questions and Exercises ... 244
Additional Readings ... 244
CHAPTER 10 Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions ... 245
Introduction ... 246
Topics Appropriate to Survey Research ... 246
Counting Crime ... 246
Self-Reports ... 247
Perceptions and Attitudes ... 247
Policy Proposals ... 247
Targeted Victim Surveys ... 248
Other Evaluation Uses ... 248
General-Purpose Crime Surveys ... 249
Guidelines for Asking Questions ... 249
Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions ... 249
Questions and Statements ... 250
Make Items Clear ... 250
Short Items Are Best ... 250
Avoid Negative Items ... 250
Avoid Biased Items and Terms ... 251
Tips on Self-Report items ... 251
Computer-Assisted Interviews ... 253
Questionnaire Construction ... 254
General Questionnaire Format ... 254
Contingency Questions ... 254
Matrix Questions ... 256
Ordering Questions in a Questionnaire ... 257
Self-Administered Questionnaires ... 258
Mail Distribution and Return ... 259
Warning Mailings, Cover Letters ... 259
Monitoring Returns ... 260
Follow-Up Mailings ... 260
Acceptable Response Rates ... 261
In-Person Interview Surveys ... 261
The Role of the Interviewer ... 261
General Rules for Interviewing ... 262
Coordination and Control ... 263
Telephone Surveys ... 264
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing ... 265
Comparison of the Three Methods ... 266
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research ... 268
Other Ways of Asking Questions ... 270
Specialized Interviewing ... 270
Focus Groups ... 271
Should You Do It Yourself? ... 272
Asking Questions in New York ... 274
Main Points ... 275
Key Terms ... 275
Review Questions and Exercises ... 275
Additional Readings ... 276
CHAPTER 11 Field Research ... 277
Introduction ... 278
Topics Appropriate to Field Research ... 279
The Various Roles of the Observer ... 280
Asking Questions ... 282
Preparing for the Field ... 284
Access to Formal Organizations ... 284
Access to Subcultures ... 287
Selecting Cases for Observation ... 288
Sampling in Field Research ... 290
Recording Observations ... 291
Field Notes ... 293
Structured Observations ... 293
Linking Field Observations and Other Data ... 294
Illustrations of Field Research ... 296
Shoplifting ... 297
Box : Conducting a Safety Audit ... 298
How Many People Wear Seat Belts? ... 300
"Driving While Black" ... 301
Bars and Violence ... 302
Field Research in New York ... 304
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research ... 306
Validity ... 306
Reliability ... 307
Generalizability ... 308
Main Points ... 309
Key Terms ... 310
Review Questions and Exercises ... 310
Additional Readings ... 310
CHAPTER 12 Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data ... 311
Introduction ... 312
Topics Appropriate for Agency Records ... 312
Types of Agency Records ... 314
Published Statistics ... 314
Nonpublic Agency Records ... 316
New Data Collected by Agency Staff ... 320
Units of Analysis and Sampling ... 322
Units of Analysis ... 322
Sampling ... 323
Reliability and Validity ... 324
Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems ... 325
Box : How Many Parole Violators Were There Last Month? ... 326
Content Analysis ... 329
Units of Analysis and Sampling in Content Analysis ... 329
Coding in Content Analysis ... 332
Illustrations of Content Analysis ... 333
Secondary Analysis ... 335
Sources of Secondary Data ... 336
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data ... 337
Main Points ... 337
NYPD Agency Records ... 338
Key Terms ... 340
Review Questions and Exercises ... 340
Additional Readings ... 340
PART 4 Application and Analysis ... 343
CHAPTER 13 Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis ... 344
Introduction ... 345
Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis ... 345
The Policy Process ... 346
Linking the Process to Evaluation ... 347
Getting Started ... 349
Evaluability Assessment ... 350
Problem Formulation ... 351
Measurement ... 353
Designs for Program Evaluation ... 356
Randomized Evaluation Designs ... 356
Home Detention : Two Randomized Studies ... 359
Quasi-Experimental Designs ... 361
Scientific Realism and Evaluation ... 364
Other Types of Evaluation Studies ... 366
Policy Analysis ... 367
Modeling Prison Populations ... 367
Other Applications of Policy Analysis ... 370
Political Context of Applied Research ... 371
Applied Research in the NYPD ... 372
Evaluation and Stakeholders ... 373
Politics and Objectivity ... 374
Box : When Politics Accommodates Facts ... 375
Main Points ... 376
Key Terms ... 377
Review Questions and Exercises ... 377
Additional Readings ... 377
CHAPTER 14 Interpreting Data ... 379
Introduction ... 380
Univariate Description ... 380
Distributions ... 380
Central Tendency ... 381
Dispersion ... 383
Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency ... 385
Computing Rates ... 387
Detail Versus Manageability ... 388
Describing Two or More Variables ... 388
Bivariate Analysis ... 388
Multivariate Analysis ... 391
Box : Murder on the Job ... 392
Measures of Association ... 396
Analyzing NYPD Crime Data ... 402
Inferential Statistics ... 404
Univariate Inferences ... 404
Tests of Statistical Significance ... 405
The Logic of Statistical Significance ... 405
Visualizing Statistical Significance ... 410
Chi Square ... 412
Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance ... 414
Visualizing Discernible Differences ... 415
Main Points ... 417
Key Terms ... 418
Review Questions and Exercises ... 418
Additional Readings ... 418
Glossary ... 420
Bibliography ... 429
Name Index ... 442
Subject Index ... 444
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